Abstract

In this paper, we demonstrate for the first time that the detailed cutaneous blood flow at capillary level within dermis of human skin can be imaged by optical micro-angiography (OMAG) technique. A novel scanning protocol, i.e. fast B scan mode is used to achieve the capillary flow imaging. We employ a 1310nm system to scan the skin tissue at an imaging rate of 300 frames per second, which requires only ~5 sec to complete one 3D imaging of capillary blood flow within skin. The technique is sensitive enough to image the very slow blood flows at ~4 μm/sec. The promising results show a great potential of OMAG’s role in the diagnosis, treatment and management of human skin diseases.

©2010 Optical Society of America

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  1. M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  2. J. D. Briers, “Laser Doppler, speckle and related techniques for blood perfusion mapping and imaging,” Physiol. Meas. 22(4), 201 (2001).
    [Crossref]
  3. H. F. Zhang, K. Maslov, G. Stoica, and L. V. Wang, “Functional photoacoustic microscopy for high-resolution and noninvasive in vivo imaging,” Nat. Biotechnol. 24(7), 848–851 (2006).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  4. A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography – principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003).
    [Crossref]
  5. P. H. Tomlins and R. K. Wang, “Theory, development and applications of optical coherence tomography,” J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 38(15), 2519–2535 (2005).
    [Crossref]
  6. Y. H. Zhao, Z. P. Chen, Z. H. Ding, H. Ren, and J. S. Nelson, “Real-time phase-resolved functional optical coherence tomography by use of optical Hilbert transformation,” Opt. Lett. 27(2), 98–100 (2002).
    [Crossref]
  7. B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  8. A. H. Bachmann, M. L. Villiger, C. Blatter, T. Lasser, and R. A. Leitgeb, “Resonant Doppler flow imaging and optical vivisection of retinal blood vessels,” Opt. Express 15(2), 408–422 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  9. M. Szkulmowski, A. Szkulmowska, T. Bajraszewski, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Flow velocity estimation using joint spectral and time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 16(9), 6008–6025 (2008).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  10. A. Szkulmowska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Three-dimensional quantitative imaging of retinal and choroidal blood flow velocity using joint spectral and time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 17(13), 10584–10598 (2009).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  11. I. Grulkowski, I. Gorczynska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Szkulmowska, R. A. Leitgeb, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Scanning protocols dedicated to smart velocity ranging in spectral OCT,” Opt. Express 17(26), 23736–23754 (2009).
    [Crossref]
  12. A. Mariampillai, B. A. Standish, E. H. Moriyama, M. Khurana, N. R. Munce, M. K. K. Leung, J. Jiang, A. Cable, B. C. Wilson, I. A. Vitkin, and V. X. D. Yang, “Speckle variance detection of microvasculature using swept-source optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 33(13), 1530–1532 (2008).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  13. J. Fingler, D. Schwartz, C. Yang, and S. E. Fraser, “Mobility and transverse flow visualization using phase variance contrast with spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 15(20), 12636–12653 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  14. Y. K. Tao, A. M. Davis, and J. A. Izatt, “Single-pass volumetric bidirectional blood flow imaging spectral domain optical coherence tomography using a modified Hilbert transform,” Opt. Express 16(16), 12350–12361 (2008).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  15. Y. K. Tao, K. M. Kennedy, and J. A. Izatt, “Velocity-resolved 3D retinal microvessel imaging using single-pass flow imaging spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 17(5), 4177–4188 (2009).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  16. R. K. Wang, S. L. Jacques, Z. Ma, S. Hurst, S. R. Hanson, and A. Gruber, “Three Dimensional Optical Angiography,” Opt. Express 15(7), 4083–4097 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  17. R. K. Wang, “In vivo full range complex Fourier domain optical coherence tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 90(5), 054103 (2007).
    [Crossref]
  18. R. K. Wang, “Fourier domain optical coherence tomography achieves full range complex imaging in vivo by introducing a carrier frequency during scanning,” Phys. Med. Biol. 52(19), 5897–5907 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  19. R. K. Wang and S. Hurst, “Mapping of cerebro-vascular blood perfusion in mice with skin and skull intact by Optical Micro-AngioGraphy at 1.3 mum wavelength,” Opt. Express 15(18), 11402–11412 (2007).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  20. R. K. Wang and L. An, “Doppler optical micro-angiography for volumetric imaging of vascular perfusion in vivo,” Opt. Express 17(11), 8926–8940 (2009).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  21. L. An and R. K. Wang, “In vivo volumetric imaging of vascular perfusion within human retina and choroids with optical micro-angiography,” Opt. Express 16(15), 11438–11452 (2008).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  22. B. J. Vakoc, S. H. Yun, J. F. de Boer, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Phase-resolved optical frequency domain imaging,” Opt. Express 13(14), 5483–5493 (2005).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  23. H. W. Ren, T. Sun, D. J. MacDonald, M. J. Cobb, and X. D. Li, “Real-time in vivo blood-flow imaging by moving-scatterer-sensitive spectral-domain optical Doppler tomography,” Opt. Lett. 31(7), 927–929 (2006).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  24. H. Ren and X. Li, “Clutter rejection filters for optical Doppler tomography,” Opt. Express 14(13), 6103–6112 (2006).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  25. I. M. Braverman, “The Cutaneous Microcirculation,” J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 5(1), 3–9 (2000).
    [Crossref]

2009 (5)

2008 (4)

2007 (6)

2006 (3)

2005 (2)

P. H. Tomlins and R. K. Wang, “Theory, development and applications of optical coherence tomography,” J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 38(15), 2519–2535 (2005).
[Crossref]

B. J. Vakoc, S. H. Yun, J. F. de Boer, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Phase-resolved optical frequency domain imaging,” Opt. Express 13(14), 5483–5493 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2003 (1)

A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography – principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003).
[Crossref]

2002 (1)

2001 (1)

J. D. Briers, “Laser Doppler, speckle and related techniques for blood perfusion mapping and imaging,” Physiol. Meas. 22(4), 201 (2001).
[Crossref]

2000 (1)

I. M. Braverman, “The Cutaneous Microcirculation,” J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 5(1), 3–9 (2000).
[Crossref]

1996 (1)

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Altmeyer, P.

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

An, L.

Bachmann, A. H.

Baier, V.

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Bajraszewski, T.

Bartlett, L. A.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Blatter, C.

Bouma, B. E.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. J. Vakoc, S. H. Yun, J. F. de Boer, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Phase-resolved optical frequency domain imaging,” Opt. Express 13(14), 5483–5493 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Braverman, I. M.

I. M. Braverman, “The Cutaneous Microcirculation,” J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 5(1), 3–9 (2000).
[Crossref]

Briers, J. D.

J. D. Briers, “Laser Doppler, speckle and related techniques for blood perfusion mapping and imaging,” Physiol. Meas. 22(4), 201 (2001).
[Crossref]

Cable, A.

Chen, Z. P.

Cobb, M. J.

Davis, A. M.

de Boer, J. F.

Ding, Z. H.

Drexler, W.

A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography – principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003).
[Crossref]

Fercher, A. F.

A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography – principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003).
[Crossref]

Fingler, J.

Fraser, S. E.

Fukumura, D.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Gorczynska, I.

Gruber, A.

Grulkowski, I.

Hanson, S. R.

Hitzenberger, C. K.

A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography – principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003).
[Crossref]

Hoffmann, K.

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Hurst, S.

Izatt, J. A.

Jacques, S. L.

Jain, R. K.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Jiang, J.

Kellam, K.

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Kennedy, K. M.

Khurana, M.

Kowalczyk, A.

Lanning, R. M.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Lasser, T.

A. H. Bachmann, M. L. Villiger, C. Blatter, T. Lasser, and R. A. Leitgeb, “Resonant Doppler flow imaging and optical vivisection of retinal blood vessels,” Opt. Express 15(2), 408–422 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography – principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003).
[Crossref]

Leitgeb, R. A.

Leung, M. K. K.

Li, X.

Li, X. D.

Ma, Z.

MacDonald, D. J.

Mariampillai, A.

Maslov, K.

H. F. Zhang, K. Maslov, G. Stoica, and L. V. Wang, “Functional photoacoustic microscopy for high-resolution and noninvasive in vivo imaging,” Nat. Biotechnol. 24(7), 848–851 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Moriyama, E. H.

Munce, N. R.

Munn, L. L.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Nelson, J. S.

Padera, T. P.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Ren, H.

Ren, H. W.

Reuther, T.

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Schwartz, D.

Standish, B. A.

Stoica, G.

H. F. Zhang, K. Maslov, G. Stoica, and L. V. Wang, “Functional photoacoustic microscopy for high-resolution and noninvasive in vivo imaging,” Nat. Biotechnol. 24(7), 848–851 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Stücker, M.

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Stylianopoulos, T.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Sun, T.

Szkulmowska, A.

Szkulmowski, M.

Szlag, D.

Tao, Y. K.

Tearney, G. J.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. J. Vakoc, S. H. Yun, J. F. de Boer, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Phase-resolved optical frequency domain imaging,” Opt. Express 13(14), 5483–5493 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Tomlins, P. H.

P. H. Tomlins and R. K. Wang, “Theory, development and applications of optical coherence tomography,” J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 38(15), 2519–2535 (2005).
[Crossref]

Tyrrell, J. A.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Vakoc, B. J.

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. J. Vakoc, S. H. Yun, J. F. de Boer, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Phase-resolved optical frequency domain imaging,” Opt. Express 13(14), 5483–5493 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Villiger, M. L.

Vitkin, I. A.

Wang, L. V.

H. F. Zhang, K. Maslov, G. Stoica, and L. V. Wang, “Functional photoacoustic microscopy for high-resolution and noninvasive in vivo imaging,” Nat. Biotechnol. 24(7), 848–851 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Wang, R. K.

Wilson, B. C.

Wojtkowski, M.

Yang, C.

Yang, V. X. D.

Yun, S. H.

Zhang, H. F.

H. F. Zhang, K. Maslov, G. Stoica, and L. V. Wang, “Functional photoacoustic microscopy for high-resolution and noninvasive in vivo imaging,” Nat. Biotechnol. 24(7), 848–851 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Zhao, Y. H.

Appl. Phys. Lett. (1)

R. K. Wang, “In vivo full range complex Fourier domain optical coherence tomography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 90(5), 054103 (2007).
[Crossref]

J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. (1)

I. M. Braverman, “The Cutaneous Microcirculation,” J. Investig. Dermatol. Symp. Proc. 5(1), 3–9 (2000).
[Crossref]

J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. (1)

P. H. Tomlins and R. K. Wang, “Theory, development and applications of optical coherence tomography,” J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 38(15), 2519–2535 (2005).
[Crossref]

Microvasc. Res. (1)

M. Stücker, V. Baier, T. Reuther, K. Hoffmann, K. Kellam, and P. Altmeyer, “Capillary blood cell velocity in human skin capillaries located perpendicularly to the skin surface: measured by a new laser Doppler anemometer,” Microvasc. Res. 52(2), 188–192 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Nat. Biotechnol. (1)

H. F. Zhang, K. Maslov, G. Stoica, and L. V. Wang, “Functional photoacoustic microscopy for high-resolution and noninvasive in vivo imaging,” Nat. Biotechnol. 24(7), 848–851 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Nat. Med. (1)

B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Opt. Express (13)

B. J. Vakoc, S. H. Yun, J. F. de Boer, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Phase-resolved optical frequency domain imaging,” Opt. Express 13(14), 5483–5493 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Ren and X. Li, “Clutter rejection filters for optical Doppler tomography,” Opt. Express 14(13), 6103–6112 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. H. Bachmann, M. L. Villiger, C. Blatter, T. Lasser, and R. A. Leitgeb, “Resonant Doppler flow imaging and optical vivisection of retinal blood vessels,” Opt. Express 15(2), 408–422 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. K. Wang, S. L. Jacques, Z. Ma, S. Hurst, S. R. Hanson, and A. Gruber, “Three Dimensional Optical Angiography,” Opt. Express 15(7), 4083–4097 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. K. Wang and S. Hurst, “Mapping of cerebro-vascular blood perfusion in mice with skin and skull intact by Optical Micro-AngioGraphy at 1.3 mum wavelength,” Opt. Express 15(18), 11402–11412 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. Fingler, D. Schwartz, C. Yang, and S. E. Fraser, “Mobility and transverse flow visualization using phase variance contrast with spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 15(20), 12636–12653 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. Szkulmowski, A. Szkulmowska, T. Bajraszewski, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Flow velocity estimation using joint spectral and time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 16(9), 6008–6025 (2008).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

L. An and R. K. Wang, “In vivo volumetric imaging of vascular perfusion within human retina and choroids with optical micro-angiography,” Opt. Express 16(15), 11438–11452 (2008).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Y. K. Tao, A. M. Davis, and J. A. Izatt, “Single-pass volumetric bidirectional blood flow imaging spectral domain optical coherence tomography using a modified Hilbert transform,” Opt. Express 16(16), 12350–12361 (2008).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Y. K. Tao, K. M. Kennedy, and J. A. Izatt, “Velocity-resolved 3D retinal microvessel imaging using single-pass flow imaging spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 17(5), 4177–4188 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. K. Wang and L. An, “Doppler optical micro-angiography for volumetric imaging of vascular perfusion in vivo,” Opt. Express 17(11), 8926–8940 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. Szkulmowska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Three-dimensional quantitative imaging of retinal and choroidal blood flow velocity using joint spectral and time domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 17(13), 10584–10598 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

I. Grulkowski, I. Gorczynska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Szkulmowska, R. A. Leitgeb, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Scanning protocols dedicated to smart velocity ranging in spectral OCT,” Opt. Express 17(26), 23736–23754 (2009).
[Crossref]

Opt. Lett. (3)

Phys. Med. Biol. (1)

R. K. Wang, “Fourier domain optical coherence tomography achieves full range complex imaging in vivo by introducing a carrier frequency during scanning,” Phys. Med. Biol. 52(19), 5897–5907 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Physiol. Meas. (1)

J. D. Briers, “Laser Doppler, speckle and related techniques for blood perfusion mapping and imaging,” Physiol. Meas. 22(4), 201 (2001).
[Crossref]

Rep. Prog. Phys. (1)

A. F. Fercher, W. Drexler, C. K. Hitzenberger, and T. Lasser, “Optical coherence tomography – principles and applications,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 66(2), 239–303 (2003).
[Crossref]

Supplementary Material (1)

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Figures (5)

Fig. 1
Fig. 1 In vivo cross sectional imaging of human skin: (A) B-scan structural image, and corresponding (B) UHS-OMAG and (C) PRODT flow images. (D) B-scan structural image, and corresponding conventional (E) OMAG and (F) PRODT flow images.

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Fig. 2
Fig. 2 , Cross sectional imaging of a flow phantom in which the intralipid scattering fluid in the capillary is not flowing. (A) B-scan structural image, and corresponding (B) ultrahigh sensitive OMAG flow image, indicating the Brownian motion of particles. White bar = 500 μm.

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Fig. 3
Fig. 3 , Assessment of UHS-OMAG sensitivity to the flow as compared to PRODT. (A) velocity image obtained from the flow phantom assessed by UHS-OMAG, (B) plot of the velocity data across the capillary tube at the position shown as the blue line in (A). (C) and (D) are the corresponding results obtained by PRODT imaging of the same phantom, respectively. White bar = 500 μm.

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Fig. 4
Fig. 4 (A) Schematic diagram of the blood vessel system of the human skin (taken with permission from SKIN CARE FORUM); (B) photograph of palm showing the scanning area (2x2 mm2); (C) 3D rendered OMAG image of blood vessels together with the 3D structures; (D) enface movie showing the imaged blood vessels at various depths (Media 1 , 1 Mbytes).

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Fig. 5
Fig. 5 UHS-OMAG provides detailed projection views of microcirculation network at different depths of skin obtained from: (A) 400 – 450μm (closely representing papillary dermis), (B) 450 – 650μm, (C) 650-780μm (closely representing reticular dermis) and (D) 780 – 1100μm (part of hypodermis), respectively. The strength of reflectance signals in the images is displayed within a range between 20dB (dark) and 50 dB (bright).

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Equations (2)

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I ( t , k ) = 2 S ( k ) E R [ ∫ − ∞ ∞ a ( z , t ) cos ( 2 k n ( t ) z ) d z + a ( z 1 ) cos [ 2 k n ( t ) ( z 1 − v t ) ] ]
I flow ( t i , k ) = I ( t i , k ) − I ( t i − 1 , k ) ,   i = 1 , 2 , 3...1500

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