Integrated photonics in the 21st century

Lars Thylén; Lech Wosinski

doi:10.1364/PRJ.2.000075

Integrated photonics in the 21st century

Lars Thylén and Lech Wosinski

Photonics Research
Vol. 2,
Issue 2,
pp. 75-81
(2014)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/PRJ.2.000075

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Lars Thylén and Lech Wosinski, "Integrated photonics in the 21st century," Photon. Res. 2, 75-81 (2014)

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Related Topics
Table of Contents Category
- Integrated Photonics
Optics & Photonics Topics
?

The topics in this list come from the OSA Optics and Photonics Topics applied to this article.
Previously assigned OCIS codes
- Integrated optics devices (130.3120)
- Integrated optics materials (130.3130)

About this Article
History
- Original Manuscript: January 31, 2014
- Revised Manuscript: March 7, 2014
- Manuscript Accepted: March 7, 2014
- Published: April 3, 2014

Accessible

Open Access

Abstract

We review the emergence and development of integrated photonics and its status today. The treatise is focused on information and communications technology (ICT) applications, but the technology is generically employable for a wealth of other applications, such as sensors. General properties of the waveguides that form the basis of integrated photonics are reviewed, and several examples of integrated photonics based on silicon and plasmonics are presented. The all-important development of integrated low-power nanophotonics is discussed and current challenges and prospects of the field are elucidated. The treatment is focused on the photonic fabric between source and detector.

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References

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Publication

G. E. Moore, “Cramming more components onto integrated circuits,” Electronics 38, 114–117 (1965).
The observation made in 1965 by Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, that the number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits had doubled every year since the integrated circuit was invented. Moore predicted that this trend would continue for the foreseeable future. In subsequent years, the pace slowed down a bit, but data density has doubled approximately every 18 months, and this is the current definition of Moore’s law—Webopedia, http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/Moores_Law.html.
L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, D. Dai, “The Moore’s law for photonic integrated circuits,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 7, 1961–1967 (2006).
[Crossref]
M. K. Smit, C. van Dam, “PHASAR-based WDM-devices: Principles, design and applications,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 2, 236–250 (1996).
[Crossref]
K. Okamoto, “Fundamentals, technology and applications of AWGs,” Proceedings of 24th European Conference on Optical Communication, Madrid, Spain, Sept.20–24, 1998.
L. Thylén, P. Holmstrom, L. Wosinski, B. Jaskorzynska, M. Naruse, T. Kawazoe, M. Ohtsu, M. Yan, M. Fiorentino, U. Westergren, “Nanophotonics for low-power switches,” in Optical Fiber Telecommunications VI, I. P. Kaminow, T. Li, A. E. Willner, eds. (Elsevier, 2013).
G.-L. Bona, R. German, B. J. Offrein, “SiON high-reffractive-index waveguide and planar lightwave circuits,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 47, 239–249 (2003).
[Crossref]
L. Liu, Z. Han, S. He, “Novel surface plasmon waveguide for high integration,” Opt. Express 13, 6645–6650 (2005).
[Crossref]
S. I. Bozhevolnyi, V. S. Volkov, E. Devaux, J.-Y. Laluet, T. W. Ebbesen, “Channel plasmon subwavelength waveguide components including interferometers and ring resonators,” Nature 440, 508–511 (2006).
[Crossref]
P. Holmström, L. Thylén, A. Bratkovsky, “Composite metal/quantum-dot nanoparticle-array waveguides with compensated loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97(7), 073110 (2010).
[Crossref]
A. Bratkovsky, E. Ponizovskaya, S. Y. Wang, P. Holmstrom, L. Thylén, Y. Fu, H. Agren, “A metal-wire/quantum-dot composite metamaterial with negative and compensated optical loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 193106 (2008).
[Crossref]
M. Z. Alam, J. Meier, J. S. Aitchison, M. Mojahedi, “Super mode propagation in low index medium,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies, OSA Technical Digest (CD) (Optical Society of America, 2007), paper JThD112.
R. F. Oulton, V. J. Sorger, D. A. Genov, D. F. P. Pile, X. Zhang, “A hybrid plasmonic waveguide for subwavelength confinement and long-range propagation,” Nat. Photonics 2, 496–500 (2008).
[Crossref]
D. Dai, S. He, “A silicon-based hybrid plasmonic waveguide with a metal cap for a nano-scale light confinement,” Opt. Express 17, 16646–16653 (2009).
[Crossref]
Z. Wang, Z. Wang, D. Dai, Y. Shi, G. Somesfalean, P. Holmstrom, L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, “Experimental realization of a low-loss nano-scale Si hybrid plasmonic waveguide,” in Optical Fiber Communication Conference/National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference 2011, OSA Technical Digest (CD) (Optical Society of America, 2011), paper JThA017.
F. Lou, Z. Wang, D. Dai, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Experimental demonstration of ultra-compact directional couplers based on silicon hybrid plasmonic waveguides,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 241105 (2012).
[Crossref]
F. Lou, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Hybrid plasmonic microdisk resonators for optical interconnect applications,” Proc. SPIE 8781, 87810X (2013).
[Crossref]
F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Wosinski, “Ultracompact polarization beam splitter based on a dielectric–hybrid plasmonic–dielectric coupler,” Opt. Lett. 37, 3372–3374 (2012).
[Crossref]
F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Design and analysis of ultra-compact EO polymer modulators based on hybrid plasmonic microring resonators,” Opt. Express 21, 20041–20051 (2013).
[Crossref]
Q. Xu, V. R. Almeida, R. R. Panepucci, M. Lipson, “Experimental demonstration of guiding and confining light in nanometer-size low-refractive-index material,” Opt. Lett. 29, 1626–1628 (2004).
[Crossref]
R. Sun, P. Dong, N. Feng, C. Hong, J. Michel, M. Lipson, L. Kimerling, “Horizontal single and multiple slot waveguides: optical transmission at λ = 1550 nm,” Opt. Express 15, 17967–17972 (2007).
[Crossref]
M. Yan, L. Thylén, M. Qiu, “Layered metal-dielectric waveguide: subwavelength guidance, leveraged modulation sensitivity in mode index, and reversed mode ordering,” Opt. Express 19, 3818–3824 (2011).
[Crossref]
M. Chacinski, U. Westergren, B. Stoltz, L. Thylén, “Monolithically integrated DFB-EA for 100 Gb/s Ethernet,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 29, 1312–1314 (2008).
[Crossref]
K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]
M. Ohtsu, Dressed Photons: Concepts of Light–Matter Fusion Technology (Springer-Verlag, 2014).
Y. Kubota, K. Nobusada, “Exciton–polariton transmission in quantum dot waveguides and a new transmission path due to thermal relaxation,” J. Chem. Phys. 134, 044108 (2011).
[Crossref]
P. Holmström, L. Thylén, “Electro-optic switch based on near-field-coupled quantum dots,” Opt. Express (submitted).
F. Wang, Y. R. Shen, “General properties of local plasmons in metal nanostructures,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 206806 (2006).
[Crossref]
L. Thylén, “A comparison of optically and electronically controlled optical switches,” Appl. Phys. A 113, 249–256 (2013).
[Crossref]

2013 (3)

F. Lou, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Hybrid plasmonic microdisk resonators for optical interconnect applications,” Proc. SPIE 8781, 87810X (2013).
[Crossref]

L. Thylén, “A comparison of optically and electronically controlled optical switches,” Appl. Phys. A 113, 249–256 (2013).
[Crossref]

F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Design and analysis of ultra-compact EO polymer modulators based on hybrid plasmonic microring resonators,” Opt. Express 21, 20041–20051 (2013).
[Crossref]

2012 (3)

F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Wosinski, “Ultracompact polarization beam splitter based on a dielectric–hybrid plasmonic–dielectric coupler,” Opt. Lett. 37, 3372–3374 (2012).
[Crossref]

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

F. Lou, Z. Wang, D. Dai, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Experimental demonstration of ultra-compact directional couplers based on silicon hybrid plasmonic waveguides,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 241105 (2012).
[Crossref]

2011 (2)

Y. Kubota, K. Nobusada, “Exciton–polariton transmission in quantum dot waveguides and a new transmission path due to thermal relaxation,” J. Chem. Phys. 134, 044108 (2011).
[Crossref]

M. Yan, L. Thylén, M. Qiu, “Layered metal-dielectric waveguide: subwavelength guidance, leveraged modulation sensitivity in mode index, and reversed mode ordering,” Opt. Express 19, 3818–3824 (2011).
[Crossref]

2010 (1)

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, A. Bratkovsky, “Composite metal/quantum-dot nanoparticle-array waveguides with compensated loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97(7), 073110 (2010).
[Crossref]

2009 (1)

D. Dai, S. He, “A silicon-based hybrid plasmonic waveguide with a metal cap for a nano-scale light confinement,” Opt. Express 17, 16646–16653 (2009).
[Crossref]

2008 (3)

A. Bratkovsky, E. Ponizovskaya, S. Y. Wang, P. Holmstrom, L. Thylén, Y. Fu, H. Agren, “A metal-wire/quantum-dot composite metamaterial with negative and compensated optical loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 193106 (2008).
[Crossref]

R. F. Oulton, V. J. Sorger, D. A. Genov, D. F. P. Pile, X. Zhang, “A hybrid plasmonic waveguide for subwavelength confinement and long-range propagation,” Nat. Photonics 2, 496–500 (2008).
[Crossref]

M. Chacinski, U. Westergren, B. Stoltz, L. Thylén, “Monolithically integrated DFB-EA for 100 Gb/s Ethernet,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 29, 1312–1314 (2008).
[Crossref]

2007 (1)

R. Sun, P. Dong, N. Feng, C. Hong, J. Michel, M. Lipson, L. Kimerling, “Horizontal single and multiple slot waveguides: optical transmission at λ = 1550 nm,” Opt. Express 15, 17967–17972 (2007).
[Crossref]

2006 (3)

F. Wang, Y. R. Shen, “General properties of local plasmons in metal nanostructures,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 206806 (2006).
[Crossref]

S. I. Bozhevolnyi, V. S. Volkov, E. Devaux, J.-Y. Laluet, T. W. Ebbesen, “Channel plasmon subwavelength waveguide components including interferometers and ring resonators,” Nature 440, 508–511 (2006).
[Crossref]

L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, D. Dai, “The Moore’s law for photonic integrated circuits,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 7, 1961–1967 (2006).
[Crossref]

2005 (1)

L. Liu, Z. Han, S. He, “Novel surface plasmon waveguide for high integration,” Opt. Express 13, 6645–6650 (2005).
[Crossref]

2004 (1)

Q. Xu, V. R. Almeida, R. R. Panepucci, M. Lipson, “Experimental demonstration of guiding and confining light in nanometer-size low-refractive-index material,” Opt. Lett. 29, 1626–1628 (2004).
[Crossref]

2003 (1)

G.-L. Bona, R. German, B. J. Offrein, “SiON high-reffractive-index waveguide and planar lightwave circuits,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 47, 239–249 (2003).
[Crossref]

1996 (1)

M. K. Smit, C. van Dam, “PHASAR-based WDM-devices: Principles, design and applications,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 2, 236–250 (1996).
[Crossref]

1965 (1)

G. E. Moore, “Cramming more components onto integrated circuits,” Electronics 38, 114–117 (1965).

Agren, H.

Aitchison, J. S.

M. Z. Alam, J. Meier, J. S. Aitchison, M. Mojahedi, “Super mode propagation in low index medium,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Quantum Electronics and Laser Science Conference and Photonic Applications Systems Technologies, OSA Technical Digest (CD) (Optical Society of America, 2007), paper JThD112.

Alam, M. Z.

Almeida, V. R.

Bona, G.-L.

G.-L. Bona, R. German, B. J. Offrein, “SiON high-reffractive-index waveguide and planar lightwave circuits,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 47, 239–249 (2003).
[Crossref]

Bozhevolnyi, S. I.

Bratkovsky, A.

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, A. Bratkovsky, “Composite metal/quantum-dot nanoparticle-array waveguides with compensated loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97(7), 073110 (2010).
[Crossref]

Chacinski, M.

M. Chacinski, U. Westergren, B. Stoltz, L. Thylén, “Monolithically integrated DFB-EA for 100 Gb/s Ethernet,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 29, 1312–1314 (2008).
[Crossref]

Dai, D.

F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Wosinski, “Ultracompact polarization beam splitter based on a dielectric–hybrid plasmonic–dielectric coupler,” Opt. Lett. 37, 3372–3374 (2012).
[Crossref]

D. Dai, S. He, “A silicon-based hybrid plasmonic waveguide with a metal cap for a nano-scale light confinement,” Opt. Express 17, 16646–16653 (2009).
[Crossref]

L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, D. Dai, “The Moore’s law for photonic integrated circuits,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 7, 1961–1967 (2006).
[Crossref]

Z. Wang, Z. Wang, D. Dai, Y. Shi, G. Somesfalean, P. Holmstrom, L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, “Experimental realization of a low-loss nano-scale Si hybrid plasmonic waveguide,” in Optical Fiber Communication Conference/National Fiber Optic Engineers Conference 2011, OSA Technical Digest (CD) (Optical Society of America, 2011), paper JThA017.

Debnath, K.

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

Devaux, E.

Dong, P.

Ebbesen, T. W.

Feng, N.

Fiorentino, M.

L. Thylén, P. Holmstrom, L. Wosinski, B. Jaskorzynska, M. Naruse, T. Kawazoe, M. Ohtsu, M. Yan, M. Fiorentino, U. Westergren, “Nanophotonics for low-power switches,” in Optical Fiber Telecommunications VI, I. P. Kaminow, T. Li, A. E. Willner, eds. (Elsevier, 2013).

Fu, Y.

Gardes, F. Y.

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

Genov, D. A.

German, R.

G.-L. Bona, R. German, B. J. Offrein, “SiON high-reffractive-index waveguide and planar lightwave circuits,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 47, 239–249 (2003).
[Crossref]

Han, Z.

L. Liu, Z. Han, S. He, “Novel surface plasmon waveguide for high integration,” Opt. Express 13, 6645–6650 (2005).
[Crossref]

He, S.

D. Dai, S. He, “A silicon-based hybrid plasmonic waveguide with a metal cap for a nano-scale light confinement,” Opt. Express 17, 16646–16653 (2009).
[Crossref]

L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, D. Dai, “The Moore’s law for photonic integrated circuits,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 7, 1961–1967 (2006).
[Crossref]

L. Liu, Z. Han, S. He, “Novel surface plasmon waveguide for high integration,” Opt. Express 13, 6645–6650 (2005).
[Crossref]

Holmstrom, P.

Holmström, P.

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, A. Bratkovsky, “Composite metal/quantum-dot nanoparticle-array waveguides with compensated loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97(7), 073110 (2010).
[Crossref]

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, “Electro-optic switch based on near-field-coupled quantum dots,” Opt. Express (submitted).

Hong, C.

Jaskorzynska, B.

Kawazoe, T.

Kimerling, L.

Krauss, T. F.

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

Kubota, Y.

Y. Kubota, K. Nobusada, “Exciton–polariton transmission in quantum dot waveguides and a new transmission path due to thermal relaxation,” J. Chem. Phys. 134, 044108 (2011).
[Crossref]

Laluet, J.-Y.

Lipson, M.

Liu, L.

L. Liu, Z. Han, S. He, “Novel surface plasmon waveguide for high integration,” Opt. Express 13, 6645–6650 (2005).
[Crossref]

Lou, F.

F. Lou, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Hybrid plasmonic microdisk resonators for optical interconnect applications,” Proc. SPIE 8781, 87810X (2013).
[Crossref]

F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Wosinski, “Ultracompact polarization beam splitter based on a dielectric–hybrid plasmonic–dielectric coupler,” Opt. Lett. 37, 3372–3374 (2012).
[Crossref]

Meier, J.

Michel, J.

Mojahedi, M.

Moore, G. E.

G. E. Moore, “Cramming more components onto integrated circuits,” Electronics 38, 114–117 (1965).

Naruse, M.

Nobusada, K.

Y. Kubota, K. Nobusada, “Exciton–polariton transmission in quantum dot waveguides and a new transmission path due to thermal relaxation,” J. Chem. Phys. 134, 044108 (2011).
[Crossref]

O’Faolain, L.

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

Offrein, B. J.

G.-L. Bona, R. German, B. J. Offrein, “SiON high-reffractive-index waveguide and planar lightwave circuits,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 47, 239–249 (2003).
[Crossref]

Ohtsu, M.

M. Ohtsu, Dressed Photons: Concepts of Light–Matter Fusion Technology (Springer-Verlag, 2014).

Okamoto, K.

K. Okamoto, “Fundamentals, technology and applications of AWGs,” Proceedings of 24th European Conference on Optical Communication, Madrid, Spain, Sept.20–24, 1998.

Oulton, R. F.

Panepucci, R. R.

Pile, D. F. P.

Ponizovskaya, E.

Qiu, M.

Reed, G. T.

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

Shen, Y. R.

F. Wang, Y. R. Shen, “General properties of local plasmons in metal nanostructures,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 206806 (2006).
[Crossref]

Shi, Y.

Smit, M. K.

M. K. Smit, C. van Dam, “PHASAR-based WDM-devices: Principles, design and applications,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 2, 236–250 (1996).
[Crossref]

Somesfalean, G.

Sorger, V. J.

Steffan, A. G.

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

Stoltz, B.

M. Chacinski, U. Westergren, B. Stoltz, L. Thylén, “Monolithically integrated DFB-EA for 100 Gb/s Ethernet,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 29, 1312–1314 (2008).
[Crossref]

Sun, R.

Thylén, L.

F. Lou, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Hybrid plasmonic microdisk resonators for optical interconnect applications,” Proc. SPIE 8781, 87810X (2013).
[Crossref]

L. Thylén, “A comparison of optically and electronically controlled optical switches,” Appl. Phys. A 113, 249–256 (2013).
[Crossref]

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, A. Bratkovsky, “Composite metal/quantum-dot nanoparticle-array waveguides with compensated loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97(7), 073110 (2010).
[Crossref]

M. Chacinski, U. Westergren, B. Stoltz, L. Thylén, “Monolithically integrated DFB-EA for 100 Gb/s Ethernet,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 29, 1312–1314 (2008).
[Crossref]

L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, D. Dai, “The Moore’s law for photonic integrated circuits,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 7, 1961–1967 (2006).
[Crossref]

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, “Electro-optic switch based on near-field-coupled quantum dots,” Opt. Express (submitted).

van Dam, C.

M. K. Smit, C. van Dam, “PHASAR-based WDM-devices: Principles, design and applications,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 2, 236–250 (1996).
[Crossref]

Volkov, V. S.

Wang, F.

F. Wang, Y. R. Shen, “General properties of local plasmons in metal nanostructures,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 206806 (2006).
[Crossref]

Wang, S. Y.

Wang, Z.

Westergren, U.

M. Chacinski, U. Westergren, B. Stoltz, L. Thylén, “Monolithically integrated DFB-EA for 100 Gb/s Ethernet,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 29, 1312–1314 (2008).
[Crossref]

Wosinski, L.

F. Lou, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Hybrid plasmonic microdisk resonators for optical interconnect applications,” Proc. SPIE 8781, 87810X (2013).
[Crossref]

F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Wosinski, “Ultracompact polarization beam splitter based on a dielectric–hybrid plasmonic–dielectric coupler,” Opt. Lett. 37, 3372–3374 (2012).
[Crossref]

L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, D. Dai, “The Moore’s law for photonic integrated circuits,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 7, 1961–1967 (2006).
[Crossref]

Xu, Q.

Yan, M.

Zhang, X.

Appl. Phys. A (1)

L. Thylén, “A comparison of optically and electronically controlled optical switches,” Appl. Phys. A 113, 249–256 (2013).
[Crossref]

Appl. Phys. Lett. (3)

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, A. Bratkovsky, “Composite metal/quantum-dot nanoparticle-array waveguides with compensated loss,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97(7), 073110 (2010).
[Crossref]

Electronics (1)

G. E. Moore, “Cramming more components onto integrated circuits,” Electronics 38, 114–117 (1965).

IBM J. Res. Dev. (1)

G.-L. Bona, R. German, B. J. Offrein, “SiON high-reffractive-index waveguide and planar lightwave circuits,” IBM J. Res. Dev. 47, 239–249 (2003).
[Crossref]

IEEE Electron Device Lett. (1)

M. Chacinski, U. Westergren, B. Stoltz, L. Thylén, “Monolithically integrated DFB-EA for 100 Gb/s Ethernet,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 29, 1312–1314 (2008).
[Crossref]

IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. (1)

M. K. Smit, C. van Dam, “PHASAR-based WDM-devices: Principles, design and applications,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 2, 236–250 (1996).
[Crossref]

J. Chem. Phys. (1)

Y. Kubota, K. Nobusada, “Exciton–polariton transmission in quantum dot waveguides and a new transmission path due to thermal relaxation,” J. Chem. Phys. 134, 044108 (2011).
[Crossref]

J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A (1)

L. Thylén, S. He, L. Wosinski, D. Dai, “The Moore’s law for photonic integrated circuits,” J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. A 7, 1961–1967 (2006).
[Crossref]

Nat. Photonics (1)

Nature (1)

Opt. Express (6)

L. Liu, Z. Han, S. He, “Novel surface plasmon waveguide for high integration,” Opt. Express 13, 6645–6650 (2005).
[Crossref]

D. Dai, S. He, “A silicon-based hybrid plasmonic waveguide with a metal cap for a nano-scale light confinement,” Opt. Express 17, 16646–16653 (2009).
[Crossref]

K. Debnath, L. O’Faolain, F. Y. Gardes, A. G. Steffan, G. T. Reed, T. F. Krauss, “Cascaded modulator architecture for WDM applications,” Opt. Express 20, 27420–27428 (2012).
[Crossref]

Opt. Lett. (2)

F. Lou, D. Dai, L. Wosinski, “Ultracompact polarization beam splitter based on a dielectric–hybrid plasmonic–dielectric coupler,” Opt. Lett. 37, 3372–3374 (2012).
[Crossref]

Phys. Rev. Lett. (1)

F. Wang, Y. R. Shen, “General properties of local plasmons in metal nanostructures,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 206806 (2006).
[Crossref]

Proc. SPIE (1)

F. Lou, L. Thylén, L. Wosinski, “Hybrid plasmonic microdisk resonators for optical interconnect applications,” Proc. SPIE 8781, 87810X (2013).
[Crossref]

Other (7)

K. Okamoto, “Fundamentals, technology and applications of AWGs,” Proceedings of 24th European Conference on Optical Communication, Madrid, Spain, Sept.20–24, 1998.

The observation made in 1965 by Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, that the number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits had doubled every year since the integrated circuit was invented. Moore predicted that this trend would continue for the foreseeable future. In subsequent years, the pace slowed down a bit, but data density has doubled approximately every 18 months, and this is the current definition of Moore’s law—Webopedia, http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/Moores_Law.html.

P. Holmström, L. Thylén, “Electro-optic switch based on near-field-coupled quantum dots,” Opt. Express (submitted).

M. Ohtsu, Dressed Photons: Concepts of Light–Matter Fusion Technology (Springer-Verlag, 2014).

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Fig. 1. Moore’s law for integration density in terms of equivalent number of elements per square micrometer of integrated photonics devices, showing a growth faster than the IC Moorés law, adapted from [3]. The figure covers, in time order, a lithium niobate

4 \times 4

polarization-independent switch array, a

4 \times 4

InP-based integrated gated amplifier switch array, an SOI AWG, and a hybrid plasmonic (passive) directional coupler. All these are experimentally demonstrated. At the top is a simulation of two coupled metal nanoparticle arrays, forming a directional coupler, each array being a resonantly operated array of silver nanoparticles. If loss requirements of, e.g.,

3 dB / cm

were invoked, the latter two would occupy significantly lower places in the figure.

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Fig. 2. Electric field distribution of TE mode in a silicon channel dielectric waveguide. The yellow and red curves express the amplitude distribution in the x and y directions, respectively; the substrate material is

{SiO}_{2}

, and the cladding is air. The guiding light core is made of silicon material with the geometry parameters

height = 200 nm

and

width = 450 nm

. The operating wavelength is 1550 nm. Channel dielectric waveguides, similarly to optical fibers, utilize total internal reflection, guiding light in higher refractive index core surrounded by lower index cladding material.

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Fig. 3. Ultrasmall subwavelength hybrid plasmonic microdisk. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) SEM image of the fabricated device with radius around 525 nm. At this radius the cavity has a resonance at about 1550 nm and the intrinsic quality factor

Q

is about 200. The thicknesses of the Au,

{SiO}_{2}

, and Si layers are 100, 56, and 400 nm, respectively. The access waveguide width is 170 nm and the gap between the straight waveguide and the microdisk is 56 nm. The measured propagation losses of the access waveguide are

0.08 dB / μm

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Fig. 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the hybrid plasmonic microring modulator. (b) Cross-sectional view along the x–y plane of the Ez field distributions of a resonant mode at 1550 nm with an azimuthal number of 6. The modulator consists of an EOP ring with radius R and a width W sandwiched between a silver ring and a silicon ring with the same radii and widths. A microwave field is applied between the Ag cap and the bottom Si layer, and the refractive index of the EOP can be changed using the ultrafast EO (Pockels) effect; correspondingly, the cavity can be switched between on- and off-resonance modes at a given frequency, resulting in the modulation of transmission power if an access waveguide is placed aside.

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Tables (2)

Table 1. Waveguide Parameters for Different Materials

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Table 2. Comparison of Performance of Some Electronically Controlled Modulators ^a, ^b, ^c

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Equations (1)

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Q = \frac{ω \cdot d ε_{metal}^{'} / d ω}{2 ε_{metal}^{''}},

Column	1	2	3	4	5	6
Characteristics	${SiO}_{2}$ Low $Δ$	${SiO}_{2}$ Medium $Δ$	${SiO}_{2}$ High $Δ$	${SiON}_{x}$	III/V	SOI
Index difference $Δ$ (%) $Δ = \frac{n_{core} - n_{clad}}{n_{core}}$	0.3	0.45	0.75	3.3	7.0 (46)	41 (46)
Core size (μm)	$8 \times 8$	$7 \times 7$	$6 \times 6$	$3 \times 2$	$2.5 \times 0.5$ ( $0.2 \times 0.5$ )	$0.2 \times 0.5$ $0.3 \times 0.3$
Loss (dB/cm)	$< 0.01$	0.02	0.04	0.1	2.5–3.5	1.8–2.0
Coupling loss (dB/point)	$< 0.1$	0.1	0.4	3.7 (2)	5	6.8 (0.8)
Bending radius (mm)	25	15	5	0.8	0.25 (0.005)	0.002–0.005

	Device and Wavelength $λ_{0}$ (A, amplitude; P, phase)	$V π L$ [Vμm]	$V π$ [V]	L [μm]	IL [dB] (Attenuation) [dB/μm)]	Confine-ment	Switch Energy [fJ/bit] (Capacitance) [fF]	Comments
1	P, Layered metal/chalcogenide waveguide [22], $λ = 1.55 μm$	0.66	0.33	2	7 (3.5)	$0.01 μm \times 0.01 μm$	0.003 (0.01)	Chalcogenide thickness 4 nm, index change 0.1
2	P, Array of Ag nanoparticles in EOP matrix, $λ = 0.680 μm$	3	15	0.2	2.4 (12)	$\sim 0.01 μm \times 0.01 μm$	(Very approxi-mate) 2 (0.01)	200 nm electrode separation. Very rough approximation, real values probably much better. Trading lower voltage for length impeded by loss
3	P, Slotline Si/EOP/Si, $λ = 1.55 μm$	160	2	80	0.1 (0.001)	$\sim 0.3 μm \times 0.7 μm$	33 (8)	Doped Si serves as electrodes. 100 nm EOP
4	A, Silicon microring resonant modulator, $λ = 1.55 μm$	41	1	41	$\sim 5$	$0.3 μm \times 0.38 μm$	$\sim 50$	Depletion mode modulator Experiment
5	A, III–V Electroabsorption QCSE [23], $λ = 1.55 μm$	400	2	200 active 500 total	3–5	$4 μm \times 4 μm$	$300 (n / a)$	Traveling-wave type EAM, 50 Ω transmission line Experiment

Column	1	2	3	4	5	6
Characteristics	${SiO}_{2}$ Low $Δ$	${SiO}_{2}$ Medium $Δ$	${SiO}_{2}$ High $Δ$	${SiON}_{x}$	III/V	SOI
Index difference $Δ$ (%) $Δ = \frac{n_{core} - n_{clad}}{n_{core}}$	0.3	0.45	0.75	3.3	7.0 (46)	41 (46)
Core size (μm)	$8 \times 8$	$7 \times 7$	$6 \times 6$	$3 \times 2$	$2.5 \times 0.5$ ( $0.2 \times 0.5$ )	$0.2 \times 0.5$ $0.3 \times 0.3$
Loss (dB/cm)	$< 0.01$	0.02	0.04	0.1	2.5–3.5	1.8–2.0
Coupling loss (dB/point)	$< 0.1$	0.1	0.4	3.7 (2)	5	6.8 (0.8)
Bending radius (mm)	25	15	5	0.8	0.25 (0.005)	0.002–0.005

	Device and Wavelength $λ_{0}$ (A, amplitude; P, phase)	$V π L$ [Vμm]	$V π$ [V]	L [μm]	IL [dB] (Attenuation) [dB/μm)]	Confine-ment	Switch Energy [fJ/bit] (Capacitance) [fF]	Comments
1	P, Layered metal/chalcogenide waveguide [22], $λ = 1.55 μm$	0.66	0.33	2	7 (3.5)	$0.01 μm \times 0.01 μm$	0.003 (0.01)	Chalcogenide thickness 4 nm, index change 0.1
2	P, Array of Ag nanoparticles in EOP matrix, $λ = 0.680 μm$	3	15	0.2	2.4 (12)	$\sim 0.01 μm \times 0.01 μm$	(Very approxi-mate) 2 (0.01)	200 nm electrode separation. Very rough approximation, real values probably much better. Trading lower voltage for length impeded by loss
3	P, Slotline Si/EOP/Si, $λ = 1.55 μm$	160	2	80	0.1 (0.001)	$\sim 0.3 μm \times 0.7 μm$	33 (8)	Doped Si serves as electrodes. 100 nm EOP
4	A, Silicon microring resonant modulator, $λ = 1.55 μm$	41	1	41	$\sim 5$	$0.3 μm \times 0.38 μm$	$\sim 50$	Depletion mode modulator Experiment
5	A, III–V Electroabsorption QCSE [23], $λ = 1.55 μm$	400	2	200 active 500 total	3–5	$4 μm \times 4 μm$	$300 (n / a)$	Traveling-wave type EAM, 50 Ω transmission line Experiment