Abstract

This paper describes the development and application of a novel optical technique for the measurement of liquid film thickness formed on surfaces during the impingement of automotive fuel sprays. The technique makes use of the change of the light scattering characteristics of a metal surface with known roughness, when liquid is deposited. Important advantages of the technique over previously established methods are the ability to measure the time-dependent spatial distribution of the liquid film without a need to add a fluorescent tracer to the liquid, while the measurement principle is not influenced by changes of the pressure and temperature of the liquid or the surrounding gas phase. Also, there is no need for non-fluorescing surrogate fuels. However, an in situ calibration of the dependence of signal intensity on liquid film thickness is required. The developed method can be applied to measure the time-dependent and two-dimensional distribution of the liquid fuel film thickness on the piston or the liner of gasoline direct injection (GDI) engines. The applicability of this technique was evaluated with impinging sprays of several linear alkanes and alcohols with different thermo-physical properties. The surface temperature of the impingement plate was controlled to simulate the range of piston surface temperatures inside a GDI engine. Two sets of liquid film thickness measurements were obtained. During the first set, the surface temperature of the plate was kept constant, while the spray of different fuels interacted with the surface. In the second set, the plate temperature was adjusted to match the boiling temperature of each fuel. In this way, the influence of the surface temperature on the liquid film created by the spray of different fuels and their evaporation characteristics could be demonstrated.

© 2016 Optical Society of America

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References

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2015 (1)

F. Schulz, J. Schmidt, and F. Beyrau, “Development of a sensitive Experimental Set-up for LIF Fuel Wall Film Measurements in a Pressure Vessel,” Experim. Fluids 56(5), 98 (2015).
[Crossref]

2012 (2)

X. He, M. A. Ratcliff, and B. T. Zigler, “Effects of Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Operating Parameters on Particle Number Emissions,” Energy Fuels 26(4), 2014–2027 (2012).
[Crossref]

F. Gao, H. Muhamedsalih, and X. Jiang, “Surface and thickness measurement of a transparent film using wavelength scanning interferometry,” Opt. Express 20(19), 21450–21456 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2011 (2)

D. Greszik, H. Yang, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Laser-based diagnostics for the measurement of liquid water film thickness,” Appl. Opt. 50(4), A60–A67 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

I. K. Kabardin, V. G. Meledin, I. Eliseev, and V. V. Rakhmanov, “Optical measurement of instantaneous liquid film thickness based on total internal reflection,” J. Eng. Thermophys. 20(4), 407–415 (2011).
[Crossref]

2010 (5)

H. Yang, D. Greszik, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Simultaneous measurement of liquid water film thickness and vapor temperature using near-infrared tunable diode laser spectroscopy,” Appl. Phys. B 99(3), 385–390 (2010).
[Crossref]

N. Borgetto, C. Galizzi, F. André, and D. Escudié, “A thickness measurement technique based on low-coherence interferometry applied to a liquid film with thermal gradient,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 34(8), 1242–1246 (2010).
[Crossref]

M. Alonso, P. J. Kay, P. J. Bowen, R. Gilchrist, and S. Sapsford, “A laser induced fluorescence technique for quantifying transient liquid fuel films utilising total internal reflection,” Exp. Fluids 48(1), 133–142 (2010).
[Crossref]

Y. Cheng, K. Deng, and T. Li, “Measurement and simulation of wall-wetted fuel film thickness,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 49(4), 733–739 (2010).
[Crossref]

X. Jiang, K. Wang, F. Gao, and H. Muhamedsalih, “Fast surface measurement using wavelength scanning interferometry with compensation of environmental noise,” Appl. Opt. 49(15), 2903–2909 (2010).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2009 (1)

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

2007 (3)

M. C. Drake and D. C. Haworth, “Advanced gasoline engine development using optical diagnostics and numerical modeling,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 31(1), 99–124 (2007).
[Crossref]

M. M. Maricq, “Chemical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: A review,” J. Aerosol Sci. 38(11), 1079–1118 (2007).
[Crossref]

S. Pfadler, F. Beyrau, and A. Leipertz, “Flame front detection and characterization using conditioned particle image velocimetry (CPIV),” Opt. Express 15(23), 15444–15456 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2006 (1)

2005 (3)

B. D. Stojkovic, T. D. Fansler, M. C. Drake, and V. Sick, “High-speed imaging of OH* and soot temperature and concentration in a stratified-charge direct-injection gasoline engine,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 30(2), 2657–2665 (2005).
[Crossref]

C. Schulz and V. Sick, “Tracer-LIF diagnostics: quantitative measurement of fuel concentration, temperature and fuel/air ratio in practical combustion systems,” Pror. Energy Combust. Sci. 31(1), 75–121 (2005).
[Crossref]

X. S. Wang and H. H. Qiu, “Fringe probing of liquid film thickness of a plug bubble in a micropipe,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 16(2), 594–600 (2005).
[Crossref]

2004 (1)

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

2003 (1)

M. Davy, P. Williams, D. Han, and R. Steeper, “Evaporation characteristics of the 3-pentanone-isooctane binary system,” Exp. Fluids 35(1), 92–99 (2003).

2001 (2)

C. H. Hidrovo and D. P. Hart, “Emission reabsorption laser induced fluorescence (ERLIF) film thickness measurement,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 12(4), 467–477 (2001).
[Crossref]

R. Domann and Y. Hardalupas, “Spatial distribution of fluorescence intensity within large droplets and its dependence on dye concentration,” Appl. Opt. 40(21), 3586–3597 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2000 (2)

A. A. Mouza, N. A. Vlachos, S. V. Paras, and A. J. Karabelas, “Measurement of liquid film thickness using a laser light absorption method,” Exp. Fluids 28(4), 355–359 (2000).
[Crossref]

P. C. Pedersen, Z. Cakareski, and J. C. Hermanson, “Ultrasonic monitoring of film condensation for applications in reduced gravity,” Ultrasonics 38(1-8), 486–490 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1999 (2)

S.-W. Kim and G.-H. Kim, “Thickness-profile measurement of transparent thin-film layers by white-light scanning interferometry,” Appl. Opt. 38(28), 5968–5973 (1999).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

1998 (4)

G. Wiegand, K. R. Neumaier, and E. Sackmann, “Microinterferometry: Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Surface Microtopography for Thin-Film and Wetting Studies by Reflection Interference Contrast Microscopy (RICM),” Appl. Opt. 37(29), 6892–6905 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

T. Fukano, “Measurement of time varying thickness of liquid film flowing with high speed gas flow by a constant electric current method (CECM),” Nucl. Eng. Des. 184(2–3), 363–377 (1998).
[Crossref]

P. Seleghim and E. Hervieu, “Direct imaging of two-phase flows by electrical impedance measurements,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 9(9), 1492–1500 (1998).
[Crossref]

J. Weickert, B. H. Romeny, and M. A. Viergever, “Efficient and reliable schemes for nonlinear diffusion filtering,” IEEE Trans. Image Process. 7(3), 398–410 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1996 (1)

M. Kühner and E. Sackmann, “Ultrathin hydrated dextran films grafted on glass: Preparation and characterization of structural, viscous, and elastic properties by quantitative microinterferometry,” Langmuir 12(20), 4866–4876 (1996).
[Crossref]

1993 (1)

Q. Lu, N. V. Suryanarayana, and C. Christodoulu, “Film Thickness Measurement with an Ultrasonic Transducer,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 7(4), 354–361 (1993).
[Crossref]

1992 (2)

J. F. Klausner, L. Z. Zeng, and D. M. Bernhard, “Development of a film thickness probe using capacitance for asymmetrical two-phase flow with heat addition,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63(5), 3147–3152 (1992).
[Crossref]

I. B. Özdemir and J. H. Whitelaw, “An Optical Method for the Measurement of Unsteady Film Thickness,” Exp. Fluids 13(5), 321–331 (1992).
[Crossref]

1988 (1)

T. Ohyama, K. Endoh, A. Mikami, and Y. H. Mori, “Optical interferometry for measuring instantaneous thickness of transparent solid and liquid films,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59(9), 2018–2022 (1988).
[Crossref]

1973 (3)

M. R. Özgu, J. C. Chen, and N. Eberhardt, “A capacitance method for measurement of film thickness in two-phase flow,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 44(12), 1714–1716 (1973).
[Crossref]

G. M. Hale and M. R. Querry, “Optical Constants of Water in the 200-nm to 200-microm Wavelength Region,” Appl. Opt. 12(3), 555–563 (1973).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. W. E. Coney, “The theory and application of conductance probes for the measurement of liquid film thickness in two-phase flow,” J. Phys. Educ. 6(9), 903 (1973).

1949 (1)

B. Commoner and D. Lipkin, “The Application of the Beer-Lambert Law to Optically Anisotropic Systems,” Science 110(2845), 41–43 (1949).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Akihima, K.

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

Alonso, M.

M. Alonso, P. J. Kay, P. J. Bowen, R. Gilchrist, and S. Sapsford, “A laser induced fluorescence technique for quantifying transient liquid fuel films utilising total internal reflection,” Exp. Fluids 48(1), 133–142 (2010).
[Crossref]

André, F.

N. Borgetto, C. Galizzi, F. André, and D. Escudié, “A thickness measurement technique based on low-coherence interferometry applied to a liquid film with thermal gradient,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 34(8), 1242–1246 (2010).
[Crossref]

Bernhard, D. M.

J. F. Klausner, L. Z. Zeng, and D. M. Bernhard, “Development of a film thickness probe using capacitance for asymmetrical two-phase flow with heat addition,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63(5), 3147–3152 (1992).
[Crossref]

Beyrau, F.

F. Schulz, J. Schmidt, and F. Beyrau, “Development of a sensitive Experimental Set-up for LIF Fuel Wall Film Measurements in a Pressure Vessel,” Experim. Fluids 56(5), 98 (2015).
[Crossref]

S. Pfadler, F. Beyrau, and A. Leipertz, “Flame front detection and characterization using conditioned particle image velocimetry (CPIV),” Opt. Express 15(23), 15444–15456 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Borgetto, N.

N. Borgetto, C. Galizzi, F. André, and D. Escudié, “A thickness measurement technique based on low-coherence interferometry applied to a liquid film with thermal gradient,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 34(8), 1242–1246 (2010).
[Crossref]

Bowen, P. J.

M. Alonso, P. J. Kay, P. J. Bowen, R. Gilchrist, and S. Sapsford, “A laser induced fluorescence technique for quantifying transient liquid fuel films utilising total internal reflection,” Exp. Fluids 48(1), 133–142 (2010).
[Crossref]

Cakareski, Z.

P. C. Pedersen, Z. Cakareski, and J. C. Hermanson, “Ultrasonic monitoring of film condensation for applications in reduced gravity,” Ultrasonics 38(1-8), 486–490 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Chen, J. C.

M. R. Özgu, J. C. Chen, and N. Eberhardt, “A capacitance method for measurement of film thickness in two-phase flow,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 44(12), 1714–1716 (1973).
[Crossref]

Cheng, Y.

Y. Cheng, K. Deng, and T. Li, “Measurement and simulation of wall-wetted fuel film thickness,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 49(4), 733–739 (2010).
[Crossref]

Christodoulu, C.

Q. Lu, N. V. Suryanarayana, and C. Christodoulu, “Film Thickness Measurement with an Ultrasonic Transducer,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 7(4), 354–361 (1993).
[Crossref]

Commoner, B.

B. Commoner and D. Lipkin, “The Application of the Beer-Lambert Law to Optically Anisotropic Systems,” Science 110(2845), 41–43 (1949).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Coney, M. W. E.

M. W. E. Coney, “The theory and application of conductance probes for the measurement of liquid film thickness in two-phase flow,” J. Phys. Educ. 6(9), 903 (1973).

Davy, M.

M. Davy, P. Williams, D. Han, and R. Steeper, “Evaporation characteristics of the 3-pentanone-isooctane binary system,” Exp. Fluids 35(1), 92–99 (2003).

Debnath, S. K.

Deng, K.

Y. Cheng, K. Deng, and T. Li, “Measurement and simulation of wall-wetted fuel film thickness,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 49(4), 733–739 (2010).
[Crossref]

Domann, R.

Drake, M. C.

M. C. Drake and D. C. Haworth, “Advanced gasoline engine development using optical diagnostics and numerical modeling,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 31(1), 99–124 (2007).
[Crossref]

B. D. Stojkovic, T. D. Fansler, M. C. Drake, and V. Sick, “High-speed imaging of OH* and soot temperature and concentration in a stratified-charge direct-injection gasoline engine,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 30(2), 2657–2665 (2005).
[Crossref]

Drake, T. D.

M. C. Fansler and T. D. Drake, “Optical Diagnostics Applied to Spark-Ignited Direct-Injection Engine Development,” 5. Int. Symp. fuer Verbrennungsdiagnostik, Baden-bad., (2002).

Dreier, T.

D. Greszik, H. Yang, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Laser-based diagnostics for the measurement of liquid water film thickness,” Appl. Opt. 50(4), A60–A67 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Yang, D. Greszik, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Simultaneous measurement of liquid water film thickness and vapor temperature using near-infrared tunable diode laser spectroscopy,” Appl. Phys. B 99(3), 385–390 (2010).
[Crossref]

Düwel, I.

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

Eberhardt, N.

M. R. Özgu, J. C. Chen, and N. Eberhardt, “A capacitance method for measurement of film thickness in two-phase flow,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 44(12), 1714–1716 (1973).
[Crossref]

Eliseev, I.

I. K. Kabardin, V. G. Meledin, I. Eliseev, and V. V. Rakhmanov, “Optical measurement of instantaneous liquid film thickness based on total internal reflection,” J. Eng. Thermophys. 20(4), 407–415 (2011).
[Crossref]

Endoh, K.

T. Ohyama, K. Endoh, A. Mikami, and Y. H. Mori, “Optical interferometry for measuring instantaneous thickness of transparent solid and liquid films,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59(9), 2018–2022 (1988).
[Crossref]

Escudié, D.

N. Borgetto, C. Galizzi, F. André, and D. Escudié, “A thickness measurement technique based on low-coherence interferometry applied to a liquid film with thermal gradient,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 34(8), 1242–1246 (2010).
[Crossref]

Fansler, M. C.

M. C. Fansler and T. D. Drake, “Optical Diagnostics Applied to Spark-Ignited Direct-Injection Engine Development,” 5. Int. Symp. fuer Verbrennungsdiagnostik, Baden-bad., (2002).

Fansler, T. D.

B. D. Stojkovic, T. D. Fansler, M. C. Drake, and V. Sick, “High-speed imaging of OH* and soot temperature and concentration in a stratified-charge direct-injection gasoline engine,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 30(2), 2657–2665 (2005).
[Crossref]

Fujikawa, T.

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

Fukano, T.

T. Fukano, “Measurement of time varying thickness of liquid film flowing with high speed gas flow by a constant electric current method (CECM),” Nucl. Eng. Des. 184(2–3), 363–377 (1998).
[Crossref]

Galizzi, C.

N. Borgetto, C. Galizzi, F. André, and D. Escudié, “A thickness measurement technique based on low-coherence interferometry applied to a liquid film with thermal gradient,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 34(8), 1242–1246 (2010).
[Crossref]

Gao, F.

Gilchrist, R.

M. Alonso, P. J. Kay, P. J. Bowen, R. Gilchrist, and S. Sapsford, “A laser induced fluorescence technique for quantifying transient liquid fuel films utilising total internal reflection,” Exp. Fluids 48(1), 133–142 (2010).
[Crossref]

Greszik, D.

D. Greszik, H. Yang, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Laser-based diagnostics for the measurement of liquid water film thickness,” Appl. Opt. 50(4), A60–A67 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Yang, D. Greszik, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Simultaneous measurement of liquid water film thickness and vapor temperature using near-infrared tunable diode laser spectroscopy,” Appl. Phys. B 99(3), 385–390 (2010).
[Crossref]

Hale, G. M.

Han, D.

M. Davy, P. Williams, D. Han, and R. Steeper, “Evaporation characteristics of the 3-pentanone-isooctane binary system,” Exp. Fluids 35(1), 92–99 (2003).

Hardalupas, Y.

Hariharan, P.

Hart, D. P.

C. H. Hidrovo and D. P. Hart, “Emission reabsorption laser induced fluorescence (ERLIF) film thickness measurement,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 12(4), 467–477 (2001).
[Crossref]

Hattori, Y.

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

Haworth, D. C.

M. C. Drake and D. C. Haworth, “Advanced gasoline engine development using optical diagnostics and numerical modeling,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 31(1), 99–124 (2007).
[Crossref]

He, X.

X. He, M. A. Ratcliff, and B. T. Zigler, “Effects of Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Operating Parameters on Particle Number Emissions,” Energy Fuels 26(4), 2014–2027 (2012).
[Crossref]

Hermanson, J. C.

P. C. Pedersen, Z. Cakareski, and J. C. Hermanson, “Ultrasonic monitoring of film condensation for applications in reduced gravity,” Ultrasonics 38(1-8), 486–490 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Hervieu, E.

P. Seleghim and E. Hervieu, “Direct imaging of two-phase flows by electrical impedance measurements,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 9(9), 1492–1500 (1998).
[Crossref]

Hidrovo, C. H.

C. H. Hidrovo and D. P. Hart, “Emission reabsorption laser induced fluorescence (ERLIF) film thickness measurement,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 12(4), 467–477 (2001).
[Crossref]

Jiang, X.

Kabardin, I. K.

I. K. Kabardin, V. G. Meledin, I. Eliseev, and V. V. Rakhmanov, “Optical measurement of instantaneous liquid film thickness based on total internal reflection,” J. Eng. Thermophys. 20(4), 407–415 (2011).
[Crossref]

Kagawa, M.

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

Karabelas, A. J.

A. A. Mouza, N. A. Vlachos, S. V. Paras, and A. J. Karabelas, “Measurement of liquid film thickness using a laser light absorption method,” Exp. Fluids 28(4), 355–359 (2000).
[Crossref]

Kariyasaki, A.

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

Kay, P. J.

M. Alonso, P. J. Kay, P. J. Bowen, R. Gilchrist, and S. Sapsford, “A laser induced fluorescence technique for quantifying transient liquid fuel films utilising total internal reflection,” Exp. Fluids 48(1), 133–142 (2010).
[Crossref]

Kim, G.-H.

Kim, S.-W.

Klausner, J. F.

J. F. Klausner, L. Z. Zeng, and D. M. Bernhard, “Development of a film thickness probe using capacitance for asymmetrical two-phase flow with heat addition,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63(5), 3147–3152 (1992).
[Crossref]

Kobayashi, T.

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

Koike, M.

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

Kothiyal, M. P.

Kühner, M.

M. Kühner and E. Sackmann, “Ultrathin hydrated dextran films grafted on glass: Preparation and characterization of structural, viscous, and elastic properties by quantitative microinterferometry,” Langmuir 12(20), 4866–4876 (1996).
[Crossref]

Leipertz, A.

Li, T.

Y. Cheng, K. Deng, and T. Li, “Measurement and simulation of wall-wetted fuel film thickness,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 49(4), 733–739 (2010).
[Crossref]

Lipkin, D.

B. Commoner and D. Lipkin, “The Application of the Beer-Lambert Law to Optically Anisotropic Systems,” Science 110(2845), 41–43 (1949).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Lu, Q.

Q. Lu, N. V. Suryanarayana, and C. Christodoulu, “Film Thickness Measurement with an Ultrasonic Transducer,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 7(4), 354–361 (1993).
[Crossref]

Maricq, M. M.

M. M. Maricq, “Chemical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: A review,” J. Aerosol Sci. 38(11), 1079–1118 (2007).
[Crossref]

Matsushita, S.

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

Meledin, V. G.

I. K. Kabardin, V. G. Meledin, I. Eliseev, and V. V. Rakhmanov, “Optical measurement of instantaneous liquid film thickness based on total internal reflection,” J. Eng. Thermophys. 20(4), 407–415 (2011).
[Crossref]

Mikami, A.

T. Ohyama, K. Endoh, A. Mikami, and Y. H. Mori, “Optical interferometry for measuring instantaneous thickness of transparent solid and liquid films,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59(9), 2018–2022 (1988).
[Crossref]

Mori, Y. H.

T. Ohyama, K. Endoh, A. Mikami, and Y. H. Mori, “Optical interferometry for measuring instantaneous thickness of transparent solid and liquid films,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59(9), 2018–2022 (1988).
[Crossref]

Morooka, S.

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

Mouza, A. A.

A. A. Mouza, N. A. Vlachos, S. V. Paras, and A. J. Karabelas, “Measurement of liquid film thickness using a laser light absorption method,” Exp. Fluids 28(4), 355–359 (2000).
[Crossref]

Muhamedsalih, H.

Nagashima, T.

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

Neumaier, K. R.

Ohyama, T.

T. Ohyama, K. Endoh, A. Mikami, and Y. H. Mori, “Optical interferometry for measuring instantaneous thickness of transparent solid and liquid films,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59(9), 2018–2022 (1988).
[Crossref]

Ousaka, A.

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

Özdemir, I. B.

I. B. Özdemir and J. H. Whitelaw, “An Optical Method for the Measurement of Unsteady Film Thickness,” Exp. Fluids 13(5), 321–331 (1992).
[Crossref]

Özgu, M. R.

M. R. Özgu, J. C. Chen, and N. Eberhardt, “A capacitance method for measurement of film thickness in two-phase flow,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 44(12), 1714–1716 (1973).
[Crossref]

Paras, S. V.

A. A. Mouza, N. A. Vlachos, S. V. Paras, and A. J. Karabelas, “Measurement of liquid film thickness using a laser light absorption method,” Exp. Fluids 28(4), 355–359 (2000).
[Crossref]

Pedersen, P. C.

P. C. Pedersen, Z. Cakareski, and J. C. Hermanson, “Ultrasonic monitoring of film condensation for applications in reduced gravity,” Ultrasonics 38(1-8), 486–490 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Peuser, P.

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

Pfadler, S.

Qiu, H. H.

X. S. Wang and H. H. Qiu, “Fringe probing of liquid film thickness of a plug bubble in a micropipe,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 16(2), 594–600 (2005).
[Crossref]

Querry, M. R.

Rakhmanov, V. V.

I. K. Kabardin, V. G. Meledin, I. Eliseev, and V. V. Rakhmanov, “Optical measurement of instantaneous liquid film thickness based on total internal reflection,” J. Eng. Thermophys. 20(4), 407–415 (2011).
[Crossref]

Ratcliff, M. A.

X. He, M. A. Ratcliff, and B. T. Zigler, “Effects of Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Operating Parameters on Particle Number Emissions,” Energy Fuels 26(4), 2014–2027 (2012).
[Crossref]

Romeny, B. H.

J. Weickert, B. H. Romeny, and M. A. Viergever, “Efficient and reliable schemes for nonlinear diffusion filtering,” IEEE Trans. Image Process. 7(3), 398–410 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Sackmann, E.

G. Wiegand, K. R. Neumaier, and E. Sackmann, “Microinterferometry: Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Surface Microtopography for Thin-Film and Wetting Studies by Reflection Interference Contrast Microscopy (RICM),” Appl. Opt. 37(29), 6892–6905 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. Kühner and E. Sackmann, “Ultrathin hydrated dextran films grafted on glass: Preparation and characterization of structural, viscous, and elastic properties by quantitative microinterferometry,” Langmuir 12(20), 4866–4876 (1996).
[Crossref]

Sapsford, S.

M. Alonso, P. J. Kay, P. J. Bowen, R. Gilchrist, and S. Sapsford, “A laser induced fluorescence technique for quantifying transient liquid fuel films utilising total internal reflection,” Exp. Fluids 48(1), 133–142 (2010).
[Crossref]

Schmidt, J.

F. Schulz, J. Schmidt, and F. Beyrau, “Development of a sensitive Experimental Set-up for LIF Fuel Wall Film Measurements in a Pressure Vessel,” Experim. Fluids 56(5), 98 (2015).
[Crossref]

Schmit, J.

Schorr, J.

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

Schulz, C.

D. Greszik, H. Yang, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Laser-based diagnostics for the measurement of liquid water film thickness,” Appl. Opt. 50(4), A60–A67 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Yang, D. Greszik, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Simultaneous measurement of liquid water film thickness and vapor temperature using near-infrared tunable diode laser spectroscopy,” Appl. Phys. B 99(3), 385–390 (2010).
[Crossref]

C. Schulz and V. Sick, “Tracer-LIF diagnostics: quantitative measurement of fuel concentration, temperature and fuel/air ratio in practical combustion systems,” Pror. Energy Combust. Sci. 31(1), 75–121 (2005).
[Crossref]

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

Schulz, F.

F. Schulz, J. Schmidt, and F. Beyrau, “Development of a sensitive Experimental Set-up for LIF Fuel Wall Film Measurements in a Pressure Vessel,” Experim. Fluids 56(5), 98 (2015).
[Crossref]

Seleghim, P.

P. Seleghim and E. Hervieu, “Direct imaging of two-phase flows by electrical impedance measurements,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 9(9), 1492–1500 (1998).
[Crossref]

Sick, V.

C. Schulz and V. Sick, “Tracer-LIF diagnostics: quantitative measurement of fuel concentration, temperature and fuel/air ratio in practical combustion systems,” Pror. Energy Combust. Sci. 31(1), 75–121 (2005).
[Crossref]

B. D. Stojkovic, T. D. Fansler, M. C. Drake, and V. Sick, “High-speed imaging of OH* and soot temperature and concentration in a stratified-charge direct-injection gasoline engine,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 30(2), 2657–2665 (2005).
[Crossref]

Steeper, R.

M. Davy, P. Williams, D. Han, and R. Steeper, “Evaporation characteristics of the 3-pentanone-isooctane binary system,” Exp. Fluids 35(1), 92–99 (2003).

Stojkovic, B. D.

B. D. Stojkovic, T. D. Fansler, M. C. Drake, and V. Sick, “High-speed imaging of OH* and soot temperature and concentration in a stratified-charge direct-injection gasoline engine,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 30(2), 2657–2665 (2005).
[Crossref]

Suryanarayana, N. V.

Q. Lu, N. V. Suryanarayana, and C. Christodoulu, “Film Thickness Measurement with an Ultrasonic Transducer,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 7(4), 354–361 (1993).
[Crossref]

Viergever, M. A.

J. Weickert, B. H. Romeny, and M. A. Viergever, “Efficient and reliable schemes for nonlinear diffusion filtering,” IEEE Trans. Image Process. 7(3), 398–410 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Vlachos, N. A.

A. A. Mouza, N. A. Vlachos, S. V. Paras, and A. J. Karabelas, “Measurement of liquid film thickness using a laser light absorption method,” Exp. Fluids 28(4), 355–359 (2000).
[Crossref]

Wang, K.

Wang, X. S.

X. S. Wang and H. H. Qiu, “Fringe probing of liquid film thickness of a plug bubble in a micropipe,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 16(2), 594–600 (2005).
[Crossref]

Weickert, J.

J. Weickert, B. H. Romeny, and M. A. Viergever, “Efficient and reliable schemes for nonlinear diffusion filtering,” IEEE Trans. Image Process. 7(3), 398–410 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Whitelaw, J. H.

I. B. Özdemir and J. H. Whitelaw, “An Optical Method for the Measurement of Unsteady Film Thickness,” Exp. Fluids 13(5), 321–331 (1992).
[Crossref]

Wiegand, G.

Williams, P.

M. Davy, P. Williams, D. Han, and R. Steeper, “Evaporation characteristics of the 3-pentanone-isooctane binary system,” Exp. Fluids 35(1), 92–99 (2003).

Wolfrum, J.

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

Yamasaki, Y.

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

Yang, H.

D. Greszik, H. Yang, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Laser-based diagnostics for the measurement of liquid water film thickness,” Appl. Opt. 50(4), A60–A67 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. Yang, D. Greszik, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Simultaneous measurement of liquid water film thickness and vapor temperature using near-infrared tunable diode laser spectroscopy,” Appl. Phys. B 99(3), 385–390 (2010).
[Crossref]

Zeller, P.

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

Zeng, L. Z.

J. F. Klausner, L. Z. Zeng, and D. M. Bernhard, “Development of a film thickness probe using capacitance for asymmetrical two-phase flow with heat addition,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63(5), 3147–3152 (1992).
[Crossref]

Zigler, B. T.

X. He, M. A. Ratcliff, and B. T. Zigler, “Effects of Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Operating Parameters on Particle Number Emissions,” Energy Fuels 26(4), 2014–2027 (2012).
[Crossref]

Appl. Opt. (7)

Appl. Phys. B (2)

H. Yang, D. Greszik, T. Dreier, and C. Schulz, “Simultaneous measurement of liquid water film thickness and vapor temperature using near-infrared tunable diode laser spectroscopy,” Appl. Phys. B 99(3), 385–390 (2010).
[Crossref]

I. Düwel, J. Schorr, P. Peuser, P. Zeller, J. Wolfrum, and C. Schulz, “Spray diagnostics using an all-solid-state Nd:YAlO3 laser and fluorescence tracers in commercial gasoline and diesel fuels,” Appl. Phys. B 79(2), 249–254 (2004).
[Crossref]

Energy Fuels (1)

X. He, M. A. Ratcliff, and B. T. Zigler, “Effects of Gasoline Direct Injection Engine Operating Parameters on Particle Number Emissions,” Energy Fuels 26(4), 2014–2027 (2012).
[Crossref]

Exp. Fluids (4)

I. B. Özdemir and J. H. Whitelaw, “An Optical Method for the Measurement of Unsteady Film Thickness,” Exp. Fluids 13(5), 321–331 (1992).
[Crossref]

M. Alonso, P. J. Kay, P. J. Bowen, R. Gilchrist, and S. Sapsford, “A laser induced fluorescence technique for quantifying transient liquid fuel films utilising total internal reflection,” Exp. Fluids 48(1), 133–142 (2010).
[Crossref]

M. Davy, P. Williams, D. Han, and R. Steeper, “Evaporation characteristics of the 3-pentanone-isooctane binary system,” Exp. Fluids 35(1), 92–99 (2003).

A. A. Mouza, N. A. Vlachos, S. V. Paras, and A. J. Karabelas, “Measurement of liquid film thickness using a laser light absorption method,” Exp. Fluids 28(4), 355–359 (2000).
[Crossref]

Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. (2)

N. Borgetto, C. Galizzi, F. André, and D. Escudié, “A thickness measurement technique based on low-coherence interferometry applied to a liquid film with thermal gradient,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 34(8), 1242–1246 (2010).
[Crossref]

Q. Lu, N. V. Suryanarayana, and C. Christodoulu, “Film Thickness Measurement with an Ultrasonic Transducer,” Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 7(4), 354–361 (1993).
[Crossref]

Experim. Fluids (1)

F. Schulz, J. Schmidt, and F. Beyrau, “Development of a sensitive Experimental Set-up for LIF Fuel Wall Film Measurements in a Pressure Vessel,” Experim. Fluids 56(5), 98 (2015).
[Crossref]

Heat Transf. Eng. (1)

A. Kariyasaki, Y. Yamasaki, M. Kagawa, T. Nagashima, A. Ousaka, and S. Morooka, “Measurement of Liquid Film Thickness by a Fringe Method,” Heat Transf. Eng. 30(1–2), 28–36 (2009).
[Crossref]

IEEE Trans. Image Process. (1)

J. Weickert, B. H. Romeny, and M. A. Viergever, “Efficient and reliable schemes for nonlinear diffusion filtering,” IEEE Trans. Image Process. 7(3), 398–410 (1998).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Int. J. Therm. Sci. (1)

Y. Cheng, K. Deng, and T. Li, “Measurement and simulation of wall-wetted fuel film thickness,” Int. J. Therm. Sci. 49(4), 733–739 (2010).
[Crossref]

J. Aerosol Sci. (1)

M. M. Maricq, “Chemical characterization of particulate emissions from diesel engines: A review,” J. Aerosol Sci. 38(11), 1079–1118 (2007).
[Crossref]

J. Eng. Thermophys. (1)

I. K. Kabardin, V. G. Meledin, I. Eliseev, and V. V. Rakhmanov, “Optical measurement of instantaneous liquid film thickness based on total internal reflection,” J. Eng. Thermophys. 20(4), 407–415 (2011).
[Crossref]

J. Phys. Educ. (1)

M. W. E. Coney, “The theory and application of conductance probes for the measurement of liquid film thickness in two-phase flow,” J. Phys. Educ. 6(9), 903 (1973).

JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. (1)

T. Fujikawa, Y. Hattori, M. Koike, K. Akihima, T. Kobayashi, and S. Matsushita, “Quantitative 2-D fuel distribution measurements in a direct-injection gasoline engine using laser-induced fluorescence technique,” JSME Int. J. Ser. B Fluids Therm. Eng. 42(4), 760–767 (1999).
[Crossref]

Langmuir (1)

M. Kühner and E. Sackmann, “Ultrathin hydrated dextran films grafted on glass: Preparation and characterization of structural, viscous, and elastic properties by quantitative microinterferometry,” Langmuir 12(20), 4866–4876 (1996).
[Crossref]

Meas. Sci. Technol. (3)

X. S. Wang and H. H. Qiu, “Fringe probing of liquid film thickness of a plug bubble in a micropipe,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 16(2), 594–600 (2005).
[Crossref]

C. H. Hidrovo and D. P. Hart, “Emission reabsorption laser induced fluorescence (ERLIF) film thickness measurement,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 12(4), 467–477 (2001).
[Crossref]

P. Seleghim and E. Hervieu, “Direct imaging of two-phase flows by electrical impedance measurements,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 9(9), 1492–1500 (1998).
[Crossref]

Nucl. Eng. Des. (1)

T. Fukano, “Measurement of time varying thickness of liquid film flowing with high speed gas flow by a constant electric current method (CECM),” Nucl. Eng. Des. 184(2–3), 363–377 (1998).
[Crossref]

Opt. Express (2)

Proc. Combust. Inst. (2)

M. C. Drake and D. C. Haworth, “Advanced gasoline engine development using optical diagnostics and numerical modeling,” Proc. Combust. Inst. 31(1), 99–124 (2007).
[Crossref]

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[Crossref]

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[Crossref]

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Figures (10)

Fig. 1
Fig. 1 Overview of the experimental setup with a schematic of the camera and light source arrangement.

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Fig. 2
Fig. 2 Optical surface phenomena in case of a roughened metal plate without (a) and with (b) liquid covering the surface.

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Fig. 3
Fig. 3 Comparison of the area averaged normalised intensity of a roughened metal (—) and a roughened glass plate (…).

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Fig. 4
Fig. 4 Image processing to derive the calibration function.

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Fig. 5
Fig. 5 Calibration points (⋇) obtained during the calibration procedure are shown with a double exponential fit (—), error approximation (…) and the calibration function.

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Fig. 6
Fig. 6 Image processing used to analyse liquid films: dewarped images before (a) and after (b) the impingement, the calculated intensity ratio (c) and the actual film thickness after applying the calibration function (d).

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Fig. 7
Fig. 7 Mean liquid volume of wall deposit of hexane (—), heptane (…) and octane (…) fuels as a function of time after triggering the injector and a plate temperature of 100°C (a) and the individual mean time signal (—) for hexane (b), heptane (c) and octane (d) including the respective standard deviation (…).

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Fig. 8
Fig. 8 Mean liquid volume of wall deposit of hexane (—), heptane (…) and octane (…) fuels as a function of time after triggering the injector and a plate temperature of 100°C (a) and the individual mean time signal (—) for hexane (b), heptane (c) and octane (d) including the respective standard deviation (…).

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Fig. 9
Fig. 9 Liquid volume of wall deposit of hexane (—), heptane (…) and octane (…) fuels as a function of time after triggering the injector and with the plate temperature matching the boiling temperature of each individual liquid.

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Fig. 10
Fig. 10 Liquid volume of wall deposit of ethanol (—), propanol (…) and butanol (…) fuels as a function of time after triggering the injector and with the plate temperature matching the boiling temperature of each individual liquid.

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Tables (2)

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Table 1 Physical properties of the liquids investigated [52].

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Table 2 Calculated evaporation energy for each fuel based on a theoretical deposit volume and on the measured volume.

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Equations (3)

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R( x,y )=1− i liq ( x,y ) i 0 ( x,y )
i 0 ( x,y ), i 0 ( x,y )=f( d( x,y ) )
y=a⋅ e bx +c⋅ e dx +e

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