Abstract

Passive remote sensing of airborne chemicals at infrared wavelengths may be limited by temporal fluctuations in atmospheric brightness temperatures δT(Δt). Brightness temperatures in two infrared spectral bands were simultaneously measured on clear and cloudy days along three lines of sights. For time windows Δt < 3–5 s, δT(Δt) remained constant at the sensor noise level and rapidly increased as Δt increased. The fluctuation time scale for the cloudy day was longer than for the clear day. The long correlation time for T(t) limits the utility of signal averaging in improving detection signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The simultaneous outputs of the two spectral channels during the clear day exhibited no spectral coherence at Δt < 3 s and limited coherence at Δt > 30 s. Measurements during the cloudy day were largely coherent. Consequently, band-by-band subtraction may have limited benefits.

©2005 Optical Society of America

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References

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  1. P. L. Hanst and S. T. Hanst , “ Gas measurement in the fundamental infrared region ,” in Air monitoring by spectroscopic techniques , M. W. Sigrist , ed. ( Wiley, New York, NY , 1994 ).
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    [Crossref]
  4. A. Ben-David , “ Remote detection of biological aerosols at a distance of 3 km with a passive Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) sensor ,” Opt. Express   11 , 418 – 429 ( 2003 ). http://www.opticsexpress.org/abstract.cfm?URI=OPEX-11-5-418
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    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  6. J. M Therault , E Puckrin , and J. O. Jensen , “ Passive standoff detection of Bacillus subtilis aerosol by Fourier-transform infrared radiometry ,” Appl. Opt.   42 , 6696 – 6703 ( 2003 ).
    [Crossref]
  7. S. Holland , R. Krauss , and G. Laufer , “ Demonstration of an uncooled LiTaO3-detector-based differential absorption radiometer for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Opt. Eng.   43 , 2303 – 2311 ( 2004 ).
    [Crossref]
  8. D. F. Flanigan , “ Prediction of the limits of detection of hazardous vapors by passive infrared using MODTRAN ,” Appl. Opt.   35 , 6090 – 6098 ( 1996 ).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  9. S. K. Holland , R. H. Krauss , and G. Laufer , The effect of temperature on passive remote sensing of chemicals by differential absorption radiometry, to be published in Opt. Eng. (October 2005 ).
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    [Crossref]
  12. N. Menyuk and D. K. Killinger , “ Assessment of relative error sources in IR DIAL measurements accuracy ,” Appl. Opt.   17 , 2690 – 2698 ( 1983 ).
    [Crossref]
  13. N. Menyuk , D. K. Killinger , and C. R. Menyuk , “ Error reduction in laser remote sensing: combined effects of cross correlation and signal averaging ,” Appl. Opt.   24 , 118 – 131 ( 1985 ).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  14. G. M. Ancellet and R. T. Menzies , “ Atmospheric correlation-time measurements and the effects on coherent Doppler lidar ,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A.   4 , 367 – 373 ( 1987 ).
    [Crossref]
  15. R. R. Beland , “ Propagation through atmospheric optical turbulence ,” Ch. 2, Vol. 2 , The infrared and electro-optical system handbook , ed. F. G. Smith SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, USA , ( 1993 ).
  16. R. E. Hufnagel , “ Propagation through atmospheric turbulence ,” Ch. 6 The infrared handbook revised edition , ed. W. L. Wolfe and G. J. Zissis , The Infrared Information Analysis (IRIA) Center, Environmental Research Insitute of Michigan, USA ( 1985 ).
  17. G. Laufer and A. Ben-David , “ Optimized differential absorption radiometer (DAR) for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Appl. Opt.   41 , 2263 – 2273 ( 2002 ).
    [Crossref] [PubMed]
  18. PcModWin 4.0 , MODTRAN atmospheric radiative transfer code, Ontar Corporation, North Andover, MA ( 2002 ).
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  20. A Papoulis and S. U. Pillali , Probability, random variables and stochastic processes , Ch. 12, McGraw-Hill, New York , 4 th edition ( 2002 ).

2004 (1)

S. Holland , R. Krauss , and G. Laufer , “ Demonstration of an uncooled LiTaO3-detector-based differential absorption radiometer for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Opt. Eng.   43 , 2303 – 2311 ( 2004 ).
[Crossref]

2003 (3)

2002 (1)

1997 (1)

1996 (1)

1987 (1)

G. M. Ancellet and R. T. Menzies , “ Atmospheric correlation-time measurements and the effects on coherent Doppler lidar ,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A.   4 , 367 – 373 ( 1987 ).
[Crossref]

1985 (1)

1983 (1)

1982 (1)

N. Menyuk , D. K. Killinger , and C. R. Menyuk , “ Limitations of signal averaging due to temporal correlation in laser remote-sensing measurements ,” Appl. Opt.   18 , 3377 – 3383 ( 1982 ).
[Crossref]

1981 (1)

Ancellet, G. M.

G. M. Ancellet and R. T. Menzies , “ Atmospheric correlation-time measurements and the effects on coherent Doppler lidar ,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A.   4 , 367 – 373 ( 1987 ).
[Crossref]

Beland, R. R.

R. R. Beland , “ Propagation through atmospheric optical turbulence ,” Ch. 2, Vol. 2 , The infrared and electro-optical system handbook , ed. F. G. Smith SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, USA , ( 1993 ).

Ben-David, A.

Flanigan, D. F.

Griffith, D. W. T.

D. W. T. Griffith and I. M. Jamie , “ Fourier transform infrared spectrometry in atmospheric and trace gas analysis ,” in Encyclopedia of analytical chemistry , R. A. Meyers , ed. ( Wiley, Chichester, England , 2000 ).

Hanst, P. L.

P. L. Hanst and S. T. Hanst , “ Gas measurement in the fundamental infrared region ,” in Air monitoring by spectroscopic techniques , M. W. Sigrist , ed. ( Wiley, New York, NY , 1994 ).

Hanst, S. T.

P. L. Hanst and S. T. Hanst , “ Gas measurement in the fundamental infrared region ,” in Air monitoring by spectroscopic techniques , M. W. Sigrist , ed. ( Wiley, New York, NY , 1994 ).

Holland, S.

S. Holland , R. Krauss , and G. Laufer , “ Demonstration of an uncooled LiTaO3-detector-based differential absorption radiometer for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Opt. Eng.   43 , 2303 – 2311 ( 2004 ).
[Crossref]

Holland, S. K.

S. K. Holland , R. H. Krauss , and G. Laufer , The effect of temperature on passive remote sensing of chemicals by differential absorption radiometry, to be published in Opt. Eng. (October 2005 ).

Hufnagel, R. E.

R. E. Hufnagel , “ Propagation through atmospheric turbulence ,” Ch. 6 The infrared handbook revised edition , ed. W. L. Wolfe and G. J. Zissis , The Infrared Information Analysis (IRIA) Center, Environmental Research Insitute of Michigan, USA ( 1985 ).

Jamie, I. M.

D. W. T. Griffith and I. M. Jamie , “ Fourier transform infrared spectrometry in atmospheric and trace gas analysis ,” in Encyclopedia of analytical chemistry , R. A. Meyers , ed. ( Wiley, Chichester, England , 2000 ).

Jensen, J. O.

Kay, S. M.

S. M. Kay , Modern Spectral Estimation , Ch. 4, P T R Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey ( 1988 ).

Killinger, D. K.

Krauss, R.

S. Holland , R. Krauss , and G. Laufer , “ Demonstration of an uncooled LiTaO3-detector-based differential absorption radiometer for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Opt. Eng.   43 , 2303 – 2311 ( 2004 ).
[Crossref]

Krauss, R. H.

S. K. Holland , R. H. Krauss , and G. Laufer , The effect of temperature on passive remote sensing of chemicals by differential absorption radiometry, to be published in Opt. Eng. (October 2005 ).

Laufer, G.

S. Holland , R. Krauss , and G. Laufer , “ Demonstration of an uncooled LiTaO3-detector-based differential absorption radiometer for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Opt. Eng.   43 , 2303 – 2311 ( 2004 ).
[Crossref]

G. Laufer and A. Ben-David , “ Optimized differential absorption radiometer (DAR) for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Appl. Opt.   41 , 2263 – 2273 ( 2002 ).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. K. Holland , R. H. Krauss , and G. Laufer , The effect of temperature on passive remote sensing of chemicals by differential absorption radiometry, to be published in Opt. Eng. (October 2005 ).

Menyuk, C. R.

N. Menyuk , D. K. Killinger , and C. R. Menyuk , “ Error reduction in laser remote sensing: combined effects of cross correlation and signal averaging ,” Appl. Opt.   24 , 118 – 131 ( 1985 ).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

N. Menyuk , D. K. Killinger , and C. R. Menyuk , “ Limitations of signal averaging due to temporal correlation in laser remote-sensing measurements ,” Appl. Opt.   18 , 3377 – 3383 ( 1982 ).
[Crossref]

Menyuk, N.

Menzies, R. T.

G. M. Ancellet and R. T. Menzies , “ Atmospheric correlation-time measurements and the effects on coherent Doppler lidar ,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A.   4 , 367 – 373 ( 1987 ).
[Crossref]

Papoulis, A

A Papoulis and S. U. Pillali , Probability, random variables and stochastic processes , Ch. 12, McGraw-Hill, New York , 4 th edition ( 2002 ).

Pillali, S. U.

A Papoulis and S. U. Pillali , Probability, random variables and stochastic processes , Ch. 12, McGraw-Hill, New York , 4 th edition ( 2002 ).

Puckrin, E

Ren, H.

Therault, J. M

Appl. Opt. (8)

N. Menyuk , D. K. Killinger , and C. R. Menyuk , “ Limitations of signal averaging due to temporal correlation in laser remote-sensing measurements ,” Appl. Opt.   18 , 3377 – 3383 ( 1982 ).
[Crossref]

N. Menyuk and D. K. Killinger , “ Assessment of relative error sources in IR DIAL measurements accuracy ,” Appl. Opt.   17 , 2690 – 2698 ( 1983 ).
[Crossref]

N. Menyuk , D. K. Killinger , and C. R. Menyuk , “ Error reduction in laser remote sensing: combined effects of cross correlation and signal averaging ,” Appl. Opt.   24 , 118 – 131 ( 1985 ).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D. F. Flanigan , “ Hazardous cloud imaging: a new way of using passive infrared ,” Appl. Opt.   36 , 7027 – 7036 ( 1997 ).
[Crossref]

D. F. Flanigan , “ Prediction of the limits of detection of hazardous vapors by passive infrared using MODTRAN ,” Appl. Opt.   35 , 6090 – 6098 ( 1996 ).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

G. Laufer and A. Ben-David , “ Optimized differential absorption radiometer (DAR) for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Appl. Opt.   41 , 2263 – 2273 ( 2002 ).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. Ben-David and H. Ren , Detection, identification and estimation of biological aerosols and vapors with Fourier transform infrared spectrometer ,” Appl. Opt.   42 , 4887 – 4900 ( 2003 ).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. M Therault , E Puckrin , and J. O. Jensen , “ Passive standoff detection of Bacillus subtilis aerosol by Fourier-transform infrared radiometry ,” Appl. Opt.   42 , 6696 – 6703 ( 2003 ).
[Crossref]

J. Opt. Soc. Am. A. (1)

G. M. Ancellet and R. T. Menzies , “ Atmospheric correlation-time measurements and the effects on coherent Doppler lidar ,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A.   4 , 367 – 373 ( 1987 ).
[Crossref]

Opt. Eng. (1)

S. Holland , R. Krauss , and G. Laufer , “ Demonstration of an uncooled LiTaO3-detector-based differential absorption radiometer for remote sensing of chemical effluents ,” Opt. Eng.   43 , 2303 – 2311 ( 2004 ).
[Crossref]

Opt. Express (1)

Opt. Lett. (1)

Other (8)

R. R. Beland , “ Propagation through atmospheric optical turbulence ,” Ch. 2, Vol. 2 , The infrared and electro-optical system handbook , ed. F. G. Smith SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, USA , ( 1993 ).

R. E. Hufnagel , “ Propagation through atmospheric turbulence ,” Ch. 6 The infrared handbook revised edition , ed. W. L. Wolfe and G. J. Zissis , The Infrared Information Analysis (IRIA) Center, Environmental Research Insitute of Michigan, USA ( 1985 ).

S. K. Holland , R. H. Krauss , and G. Laufer , The effect of temperature on passive remote sensing of chemicals by differential absorption radiometry, to be published in Opt. Eng. (October 2005 ).

P. L. Hanst and S. T. Hanst , “ Gas measurement in the fundamental infrared region ,” in Air monitoring by spectroscopic techniques , M. W. Sigrist , ed. ( Wiley, New York, NY , 1994 ).

D. W. T. Griffith and I. M. Jamie , “ Fourier transform infrared spectrometry in atmospheric and trace gas analysis ,” in Encyclopedia of analytical chemistry , R. A. Meyers , ed. ( Wiley, Chichester, England , 2000 ).

PcModWin 4.0 , MODTRAN atmospheric radiative transfer code, Ontar Corporation, North Andover, MA ( 2002 ).

S. M. Kay , Modern Spectral Estimation , Ch. 4, P T R Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey ( 1988 ).

A Papoulis and S. U. Pillali , Probability, random variables and stochastic processes , Ch. 12, McGraw-Hill, New York , 4 th edition ( 2002 ).

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Figures (11)

Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Variation of the brightness temperature with time as measured in a clear day (afternoon) by detector 1 (thick lines) and detector 2 (thin lines) for line of sight pointing toward (1) a building at 0.5 km (blue), (2) a mountain at 6 km (red), (3) the horizon (green), and (4) a blackbody at room temperature in the lab (black). Note: the two detectors measurements are simultaneous for each line of sight but the measurements for the three lines of sight are not simultaneous and were taken within ~ 1 hour.

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Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Same as Fig. 1 but for a cloudy day (morning). The measurements for the three lines of sight are not simultaneous and were taken within ~ 2 hours.

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Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Variation of brightness temperature fluctuations δT with detection time window Δt as seen by channel 1 for a clear day using brightness temperature measurements shown in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Variation of brightness temperature fluctuations δT with detection time window Δt as seen by detector 1 for a cloudy day using brightness temperature measurements shown in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Variation of the time-lag autocorrelation function ρ with Δt for the results of detector 1 during the clear day tests.

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Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Variation of the correlation coefficient ρ with Δt for the results of detector 1 during the cloudy day tests.

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Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Transmission spectra of atmospheric water vapor (H2O and H2O continuum), O3, and CO2 along horizontal 5 km path as computed using MODTRAN for 1976 standard atmosphere, with 1 cm-1 resolution and 23 km visibility.

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Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Power spectrum density of the brightness temperature of Fig. 1 (clear day, channel 1).

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Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Variation with detection frequency of the coherence function between channels 1 and 2 for the clear day tests (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Same as Fig. 10 but for the cloudy day tests (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. The standard deviation for the mean temperature σμi for the various one-minute sub-tests of the clear day experiment.

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Tables (2)

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Table 1. System specifications for the dual MCT detectors

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Table 2. Coefficients of the polynomial fit of δT(Δt > 1 s) (Eq. 11) for the six outdoor tests.

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Equations (15)

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S k = A k + B k W s ( T , λ k ) − C k W C ( T C , λ k )
( σ N 2 ) i = 1 N ∑ j = 1 N ( T j − μ i ) 2
μ i = 1 N ∑ T j j = ( i − 1 ) N + 1 ( i − 1 ) N + N
E [ σ N 2 ] = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n ( σ N 2 ) i
E [ σ N 2 ] = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n [ E ( T i 2 ) − μ i 2 ] = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n E ( T i 2 ) − 1 n ∑ i = 1 n μ i 2
1 n ∑ i = 1 n [ N μ i − N μ ] 2 N 2 = σ 2 N [ 1 + 2 ∑ j = 1 N − 1 ( 1 − j N ) ρ j ] = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n μ i 2 − μ 2
σ N 2 ≅ σ 2 − σ 2 N [ 1 + 2 ∑ j = 1 N − 1 ( 1 − j N ) ρ j ]
ρ N = ∑ k = 1 m − 1 [ T k − μ ] [ T k + N − μ ] σ 2 ( m − N )
σ N 2 ≅ σ 2 − σ 2 N ( 1 + ( N − 1 ) ρ o )
{ ρ N − 1 = K N − ∑ j = 1 N − 2 ( 1 − j N ) ρ j 1 − N − 1 N K N = ( σ 2 − δ T 2 ( Δ t N ) σ 2 ) N 2 − 1 2 } N > 1
log ⁡ [ δ T ( Δ t ) ] = ∑ i = 0 4 β i log ⁡ ( Δ t ) i
= β 0 + β 1 log ⁡ ( Δ t ) + β 2 log ⁡ ( Δ t ) 2 + β 3 log ⁡ ( Δ t ) 3 + β 4 log ⁡ ( Δ t ) 4
σ μ 2 ≅ σ 2 N [ 1 + 2 ∑ j = 1 N − 1 ( 1 − j N ) ρ j ]
ρ max ≪ 1 N Q 2
{ ρ N − 1 = K N − ∑ j = 1 N − 2 ( 1 − j N ) ρ j 1 − N − 1 N K N = ( σ μ N 2 E ( x 2 ) ) N 2 − 1 2 } N > 1

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