Simulation of the passive infrared spectral signatures of bioaerosol and natural fog clouds immersed in the background atmosphere

D.A. Ligon; A.E. Wetmore; P.S. Gillespie

doi:10.1364/OE.10.000909

Abstract

At first glance, an examination of the bulk refractive indices for the 8–12 μm waveband of various bioaerosols suggests differentiation with respect to common background aerosols based upon the spectral characteristics of the absorption. The question of whether there is a spectral signature of bioaerosol clouds when those clouds are immersed in a typical atmosphere, including the boundary layer background aerosols, has been addressed in a simulation using the Weather and Atmospheric Visualization Effects for Simulation (WAVES) suite of codes. Using measured values of the refractive index for common bacterial spores, and their typical size distributions, the single-scattering, ensemble-averaged optical properties such as extinction/absorption coefficients, albedo, and the scattering phase function was computed for bioaerosol clouds at a resolution of 1 cm^-1. WAVES was then used to calculate the radiative transfer for a finite sized cloud immersed in background. Results of this simulation indicate that, for a passive remote sensing measurement, it is unlikely that bioaerosol clouds can be identified from the spectral signature alone.

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References

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|
Year
|
Author
|
Publication

D.F. Flanigan, “Hazardous Cloud Imaging: a new way of using the passive infrared,” Appl. Opt. 36, 7027–7036 (1997).
[Crossref]
D.F. Flanigan, “Hazardous Cloud Imaging: An In-Depth Study,” ERDEC-TR-416 (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1997).
D.F. Flanigan, “Prediction of the limits of detection of hazardous vapors by passive infrared with the use of MODTRAN,” Appl. Opt. 35, 6090–6098 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
D.F. Flanigan, “Vapor-detection sensitivity as a function of spectral resolution for a single lorentzian band,” Appl. Opt. 34, 2636–2639 (1995).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
M.L.G. Althouse and C. Chang, “Chemical vapor detection with a multispectral thermal imager,” Opt. Eng. 30, 1725–1733 (1991).
[Crossref]
L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]
S.R. Horman, “Remote Identification of CW Agents by Spectral Techniques: Calculations of Cloud Emission in the Infrared,” NSWC–TR–3457, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1976).
C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]
D. Suhre and E. Villa, “Imaging spectroradiometer for the 8-12 micron region with a 2 cm-1 passband acousto-optic tunable filter,” Appl. Opt. 37, 2340–2345 (1998).
[Crossref]
D. Segelstein, ”The complex refractive index of water,” M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri- Kansas City (1981);P. Ray, ”Broadband complex refractive indices of ice and water,” Appl. Opt. 11, 1836–1844 (1972).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
S. Yabushita and K. Wada, “The Infrared and Ultraviolet Absorptions of Micro-Organisms and their relation to the Hoyle-Wickamasinghe Hypothesis,” Astrophys. Space Sci. 110, 405–411 (1985).
[Crossref]
R.W. Fenn, E.P Shettle, and W.S. Hering, et.al., “Atmospheric optical properties and meteroo-logical conditions,” Atmos. Environ. 15, 1911–1918 (1981)
[Crossref]
E.P Shettle and R.W. Fenn, “Models for the aerosols of the lower atmosphere and the effects of humidity variations on their optical properties,” AFGL-TR-79-0214, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1979).
K.P Gurton, D.A. Ligon, and R. Kvavilashvili, “Measured infrared spectral extinction for aerosolized Bacillus subtilis var. niger endospores from 3 to 13 μm,” Appl. Opt. 40, 4443–4448 (2001).
[Crossref]
D.A. Ligon, T.W. Chen, and J.B. Gillespie,“Determination of aerosol parameters from light-scattering data using an inverse Monte Carlo technique,” Appl. Opt. 35, 4297–4303 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
P.S. Gillespie, A.E. Wetmore, and D.A. Ligon, “Weather and Atmospheric Effects for Simulation: WAVES98 Suite Overview,” ARL-TR-1721-1, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1998).

2001 (1)

K.P Gurton, D.A. Ligon, and R. Kvavilashvili, “Measured infrared spectral extinction for aerosolized Bacillus subtilis var. niger endospores from 3 to 13 μm,” Appl. Opt. 40, 4443–4448 (2001).
[Crossref]

1999 (1)

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

1991 (1)

M.L.G. Althouse and C. Chang, “Chemical vapor detection with a multispectral thermal imager,” Opt. Eng. 30, 1725–1733 (1991).
[Crossref]

1990 (1)

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

1985 (1)

S. Yabushita and K. Wada, “The Infrared and Ultraviolet Absorptions of Micro-Organisms and their relation to the Hoyle-Wickamasinghe Hypothesis,” Astrophys. Space Sci. 110, 405–411 (1985).
[Crossref]

1981 (1)

R.W. Fenn, E.P Shettle, and W.S. Hering, et.al., “Atmospheric optical properties and meteroo-logical conditions,” Atmos. Environ. 15, 1911–1918 (1981)
[Crossref]

1979 (1)

E.P Shettle and R.W. Fenn, “Models for the aerosols of the lower atmosphere and the effects of humidity variations on their optical properties,” AFGL-TR-79-0214, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1979).

Akinyemi, A.N.

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

Althouse, M.

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

Althouse, M.L.G.

M.L.G. Althouse and C. Chang, “Chemical vapor detection with a multispectral thermal imager,” Opt. Eng. 30, 1725–1733 (1991).
[Crossref]

Arakawa, E.T.

private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Carr, L.

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

Chang, C.

M.L.G. Althouse and C. Chang, “Chemical vapor detection with a multispectral thermal imager,” Opt. Eng. 30, 1725–1733 (1991).
[Crossref]

Chen, T.W.

D.A. Ligon, T.W. Chen, and J.B. Gillespie,“Determination of aerosol parameters from light-scattering data using an inverse Monte Carlo technique,” Appl. Opt. 35, 4297–4303 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Fenn, R.W.

R.W. Fenn, E.P Shettle, and W.S. Hering, et.al., “Atmospheric optical properties and meteroo-logical conditions,” Atmos. Environ. 15, 1911–1918 (1981)
[Crossref]

E.P Shettle and R.W. Fenn, “Models for the aerosols of the lower atmosphere and the effects of humidity variations on their optical properties,” AFGL-TR-79-0214, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1979).

Flanigan, D.F.

D.F. Flanigan, “Hazardous Cloud Imaging: a new way of using the passive infrared,” Appl. Opt. 36, 7027–7036 (1997).
[Crossref]

D.F. Flanigan, “Prediction of the limits of detection of hazardous vapors by passive infrared with the use of MODTRAN,” Appl. Opt. 35, 6090–6098 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D.F. Flanigan, “Vapor-detection sensitivity as a function of spectral resolution for a single lorentzian band,” Appl. Opt. 34, 2636–2639 (1995).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D.F. Flanigan, “Hazardous Cloud Imaging: An In-Depth Study,” ERDEC-TR-416 (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1997).

Fletcher, L.

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

Gillespie, J.B.

D.A. Ligon, T.W. Chen, and J.B. Gillespie,“Determination of aerosol parameters from light-scattering data using an inverse Monte Carlo technique,” Appl. Opt. 35, 4297–4303 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Gillespie, P.S.

P.S. Gillespie, A.E. Wetmore, and D.A. Ligon, “Weather and Atmospheric Effects for Simulation: WAVES98 Suite Overview,” ARL-TR-1721-1, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1998).

Gittins, C.M.

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

Gurton, K.P

K.P Gurton, D.A. Ligon, and R. Kvavilashvili, “Measured infrared spectral extinction for aerosolized Bacillus subtilis var. niger endospores from 3 to 13 μm,” Appl. Opt. 40, 4443–4448 (2001).
[Crossref]

Hering, W.S.

R.W. Fenn, E.P Shettle, and W.S. Hering, et.al., “Atmospheric optical properties and meteroo-logical conditions,” Atmos. Environ. 15, 1911–1918 (1981)
[Crossref]

Holland, P.

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

Horman, S.R.

S.R. Horman, “Remote Identification of CW Agents by Spectral Techniques: Calculations of Cloud Emission in the Infrared,” NSWC–TR–3457, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1976).

Jensen, J.O.

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

Khare, B.N.

private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Kvavilashvili, R.

K.P Gurton, D.A. Ligon, and R. Kvavilashvili, “Measured infrared spectral extinction for aerosolized Bacillus subtilis var. niger endospores from 3 to 13 μm,” Appl. Opt. 40, 4443–4448 (2001).
[Crossref]

Leonelli, J.

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

Ligon, D.A.

K.P Gurton, D.A. Ligon, and R. Kvavilashvili, “Measured infrared spectral extinction for aerosolized Bacillus subtilis var. niger endospores from 3 to 13 μm,” Appl. Opt. 40, 4443–4448 (2001).
[Crossref]

D.A. Ligon, T.W. Chen, and J.B. Gillespie,“Determination of aerosol parameters from light-scattering data using an inverse Monte Carlo technique,” Appl. Opt. 35, 4297–4303 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P.S. Gillespie, A.E. Wetmore, and D.A. Ligon, “Weather and Atmospheric Effects for Simulation: WAVES98 Suite Overview,” ARL-TR-1721-1, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1998).

Marinelli, W.J.

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

McPherrin, D.

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

Milham, M.E.

private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Piper, L.G.

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

Querry, M.R.

private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Rawlins, W.T.

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

Segelstein, D.

D. Segelstein, ”The complex refractive index of water,” M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri- Kansas City (1981);P. Ray, ”Broadband complex refractive indices of ice and water,” Appl. Opt. 11, 1836–1844 (1972).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Shettle, E.P

R.W. Fenn, E.P Shettle, and W.S. Hering, et.al., “Atmospheric optical properties and meteroo-logical conditions,” Atmos. Environ. 15, 1911–1918 (1981)
[Crossref]

E.P Shettle and R.W. Fenn, “Models for the aerosols of the lower atmosphere and the effects of humidity variations on their optical properties,” AFGL-TR-79-0214, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1979).

Suhre, D.

D. Suhre and E. Villa, “Imaging spectroradiometer for the 8-12 micron region with a 2 cm-1 passband acousto-optic tunable filter,” Appl. Opt. 37, 2340–2345 (1998).
[Crossref]

Tuminello, P.S.

private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Villa, E.

D. Suhre and E. Villa, “Imaging spectroradiometer for the 8-12 micron region with a 2 cm-1 passband acousto-optic tunable filter,” Appl. Opt. 37, 2340–2345 (1998).
[Crossref]

Wada, K.

S. Yabushita and K. Wada, “The Infrared and Ultraviolet Absorptions of Micro-Organisms and their relation to the Hoyle-Wickamasinghe Hypothesis,” Astrophys. Space Sci. 110, 405–411 (1985).
[Crossref]

Wetmore, A.E.

P.S. Gillespie, A.E. Wetmore, and D.A. Ligon, “Weather and Atmospheric Effects for Simulation: WAVES98 Suite Overview,” ARL-TR-1721-1, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1998).

Wrobel, J.M.

private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Yabushita, S.

S. Yabushita and K. Wada, “The Infrared and Ultraviolet Absorptions of Micro-Organisms and their relation to the Hoyle-Wickamasinghe Hypothesis,” Astrophys. Space Sci. 110, 405–411 (1985).
[Crossref]

Appl. Opt. (7)

D.F. Flanigan, “Prediction of the limits of detection of hazardous vapors by passive infrared with the use of MODTRAN,” Appl. Opt. 35, 6090–6098 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D.F. Flanigan, “Vapor-detection sensitivity as a function of spectral resolution for a single lorentzian band,” Appl. Opt. 34, 2636–2639 (1995).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D.F. Flanigan, “Hazardous Cloud Imaging: a new way of using the passive infrared,” Appl. Opt. 36, 7027–7036 (1997).
[Crossref]

D. Suhre and E. Villa, “Imaging spectroradiometer for the 8-12 micron region with a 2 cm-1 passband acousto-optic tunable filter,” Appl. Opt. 37, 2340–2345 (1998).
[Crossref]

private communication, for optical constants in the visible to short wave IR see P.S. Tuminello, E.T. Arakawa, B.N. Khare, J.M. Wrobel, M.R. Querry, and M.E. Milham, “Optical properties of Bacillus subtilis spores from 0.2 to 2.5 microns,” Appl. Opt. 36, 2818–2824 (1997).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K.P Gurton, D.A. Ligon, and R. Kvavilashvili, “Measured infrared spectral extinction for aerosolized Bacillus subtilis var. niger endospores from 3 to 13 μm,” Appl. Opt. 40, 4443–4448 (2001).
[Crossref]

D.A. Ligon, T.W. Chen, and J.B. Gillespie,“Determination of aerosol parameters from light-scattering data using an inverse Monte Carlo technique,” Appl. Opt. 35, 4297–4303 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Astrophys. Space Sci. (1)

S. Yabushita and K. Wada, “The Infrared and Ultraviolet Absorptions of Micro-Organisms and their relation to the Hoyle-Wickamasinghe Hypothesis,” Astrophys. Space Sci. 110, 405–411 (1985).
[Crossref]

Atmos. Environ. (1)

R.W. Fenn, E.P Shettle, and W.S. Hering, et.al., “Atmospheric optical properties and meteroo-logical conditions,” Atmos. Environ. 15, 1911–1918 (1981)
[Crossref]

Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. (1)

C.M. Gittins, L.G. Piper, W.T. Rawlins, W.J. Marinelli, J.O. Jensen, and A.N. Akinyemi, “Passive and Active Standoff Infrared Detection of Bio-Aerosols,” Field. Anal. Chem. Tech. 3, 274–282 (1999).
[Crossref]

Opt. Eng. (1)

M.L.G. Althouse and C. Chang, “Chemical vapor detection with a multispectral thermal imager,” Opt. Eng. 30, 1725–1733 (1991).
[Crossref]

Proc. SPIE (1)

L. Carr, L. Fletcher, P. Holland, J. Leonelli, D. McPherrin, and M. Althouse, “Characterization of filtered FLIR systems designed for chemical vapor detection and mapping,” in Infrared Imaging Systems: Design, Analysis, Modeling, and Testing, G.C. Holst, ed., Proc. SPIE Vol. 1309, 90–103 (1990).
[Crossref]

Other (5)

S.R. Horman, “Remote Identification of CW Agents by Spectral Techniques: Calculations of Cloud Emission in the Infrared,” NSWC–TR–3457, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1976).

D. Segelstein, ”The complex refractive index of water,” M.S. Thesis, University of Missouri- Kansas City (1981);P. Ray, ”Broadband complex refractive indices of ice and water,” Appl. Opt. 11, 1836–1844 (1972).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D.F. Flanigan, “Hazardous Cloud Imaging: An In-Depth Study,” ERDEC-TR-416 (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1997).

P.S. Gillespie, A.E. Wetmore, and D.A. Ligon, “Weather and Atmospheric Effects for Simulation: WAVES98 Suite Overview,” ARL-TR-1721-1, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1998).

E.P Shettle and R.W. Fenn, “Models for the aerosols of the lower atmosphere and the effects of humidity variations on their optical properties,” AFGL-TR-79-0214, (Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Cameron Station, VA., 1979).

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Fig. 1. Bulk refractive indices for the aerosol cloud materials; B. subtilis, M. luteus, and liquid water.

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Fig. 2. Ensemble–average extinction, scattering, and absorption coefficients for the aerosol cloud targets; a) Advection fog, b) Radiation fog, c) B. subtilis, and d) M. luteus

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Fig. 3. Single–scattering, ensemble–average phase functions for the model aerosol clouds; a) Advection Fog, b) Radiation Fog, c) B. subtilis, and d) M. luteus.

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Fig. 4. Geometry of the volume used in the radiative transfer calculation.

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Fig. 5. Limiting path radiance for a cloud aerosol loading of γ = 0.5 for the cloud in near field (R/R ₀ = 0).

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Fig. 6. Limiting path radiance for an cloud aerosol loading of γ = 0.5 for the cloud in far–field (R/R ₀ = 24).

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Fig. 7. Limiting path radiance for a large cloud aerosol loading of γ = 0.97 for the cloud in near–field (R/R ₀ = 0).

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Fig. 8. Limiting path radiance for a large cloud aerosol loading of γ = 0.97 for the cloud in far–field (R/R ₀ = 24).

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Fig. 9. Limiting path radiance for a dominate cloud aerosol loading of γ = 0.99 for the cloud in near–field (R/R ₀ = 0).

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Fig. 10. Limiting path radiance for a dominate cloud aerosol loading of γ = 0.99 for the cloud in far–field (R/R ₀ = 24).

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Equations (6)

Equations on this page are rendered with MathJax. Learn more.

〈 c_{i} (k) 〉 = \int_{0}^{\infty} n (r) σ_{i} (kr) dr,

P (Ω k) = \frac{1}{〈 c_{scat} (k) 〉} \int_{0}^{\infty} n (r) (\frac{d σ_{scat} (kr, Ω)}{d Ω}) dr

n (r) = \frac{dN}{dr} = A' {(\frac{r}{r_{c}})}^{α} \exp [\frac{- α}{γ} {(\frac{r}{r_{c}})}^{γ}],

A' = \frac{N}{r_{c}} \frac{γ {(\frac{α}{γ})}^{\frac{α + 1}{γ}}}{Γ (\frac{α + 1}{γ})} .

n (r) = \frac{dN}{dr} = N \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 π} σr} \exp [- \frac{{(\ln r - \ln r_{c})}^{2}}{2 σ^{2}}] .

γ = \frac{{〈 β_{e, target} 〉}_{Γ}}{{〈 β_{e, target} + β_{e, background} 〉}_{Γ}},

Abstract

References

2001 (1)

1999 (1)

1998 (1)

1997 (2)

1996 (2)

1995 (1)

1991 (1)

1990 (1)

1985 (1)

1981 (1)

1979 (1)

Akinyemi, A.N.

Althouse, M.

Althouse, M.L.G.

Arakawa, E.T.

Carr, L.

Chang, C.

Chen, T.W.

Fenn, R.W.

Flanigan, D.F.

Fletcher, L.

Gillespie, J.B.

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Segelstein, D.

Shettle, E.P

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Villa, E.

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Wrobel, J.M.

Yabushita, S.

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