Comparison of amplitude-decorrelation, speckle-variance and phase-variance OCT angiography methods for imaging the human retina and choroid

Iwona Gorczynska; Justin V. Migacz; Robert J. Zawadzki; Arlie G. Capps; John S. Werner

doi:10.1364/BOE.7.000911

Comparison of amplitude-decorrelation, speckle-variance and phase-variance OCT angiography methods for imaging the human retina and choroid

Iwona Gorczynska, Justin V. Migacz, Robert J. Zawadzki, Arlie G. Capps, and John S. Werner

Biomedical Optics Express
Vol. 7,
Issue 3,
pp. 911-942
(2016)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/BOE.7.000911

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Iwona Gorczynska, Justin V. Migacz, Robert J. Zawadzki, Arlie G. Capps, and John S. Werner, "Comparison of amplitude-decorrelation, speckle-variance and phase-variance OCT angiography methods for imaging the human retina and choroid," Biomed. Opt. Express 7, 911-942 (2016)

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Table of Contents Category
- Optical Coherence Tomography
Optics & Photonics Topics
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The topics in this list come from the OSA Optics and Photonics Topics applied to this article.
Previously assigned OCIS codes
- Imaging systems (110.0110)
- Image analysis (110.2960)
- Optical coherence tomography (110.4500)
- Medical and biological imaging (170.3880)
- Ophthalmology (170.4470)
- Flow diagnostics (280.2490)

About this Article
History
- Original Manuscript: December 14, 2015
- Revised Manuscript: February 3, 2016
- Manuscript Accepted: February 12, 2016
- Published: February 19, 2016

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Open Access

Abstract

We compared the performance of three OCT angiography (OCTA) methods: speckle variance, amplitude decorrelation and phase variance for imaging of the human retina and choroid. Two averaging methods, split spectrum and volume averaging, were compared to assess the quality of the OCTA vascular images. All data were acquired using a swept-source OCT system at 1040 nm central wavelength, operating at 100,000 A-scans/s. We performed a quantitative comparison using a contrast-to-noise (CNR) metric to assess the capability of the three methods to visualize the choriocapillaris layer. For evaluation of the static tissue noise suppression in OCTA images we proposed to calculate CNR between the photoreceptor/RPE complex and the choriocapillaris layer. Finally, we demonstrated that implementation of intensity-based OCT imaging and OCT angiography methods allows for visualization of retinal and choroidal vascular layers known from anatomic studies in retinal preparations. OCT projection imaging of data flattened to selected retinal layers was implemented to visualize retinal and choroidal vasculature. User guided vessel tracing was applied to segment the retinal vasculature. The results were visualized in a form of a skeletonized 3D model.

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S. M. Waldstein, H. Faatz, M. Szimacsek, A. M. Glodan, D. Podkowinski, A. Montuoro, C. Simader, B. S. Gerendas, and U. Schmidt-Erfurth, “Comparison of penetration depth in choroidal imaging using swept source vs spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Eye (Lond.) 29(3), 409–415 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
K. Ohno-Matsui, M. Akiba, T. Ishibashi, and M. Moriyama, “Observations of vascular structures within and posterior to sclera in eyes with pathologic myopia by swept-source optical coherence tomography,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(11), 7290–7298 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
B. Vuong, A. M. D. Lee, T. W. H. Luk, C. Sun, S. Lam, P. Lane, and V. X. D. Yang, “High speed, wide velocity dynamic range Doppler optical coherence tomography (Part IV): split spectrum processing in rotary catheter probes,” Opt. Express 22(7), 7399–7415 (2014).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2015 (9)

Y. Jia, S. T. Bailey, T. S. Hwang, S. M. McClintic, S. S. Gao, M. E. Pennesi, C. J. Flaxel, A. K. Lauer, D. J. Wilson, J. Hornegger, J. G. Fujimoto, and D. Huang, “Quantitative optical coherence tomography angiography of vascular abnormalities in the living human eye,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112(18), E2395–E2402 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D. Ruminski, B. L. Sikorski, D. Bukowska, M. Szkulmowski, K. Krawiec, G. Malukiewicz, L. Bieganowski, and M. Wojtkowski, “OCT angiography by absolute intensity difference applied to normal and diseased human retinas,” Biomed. Opt. Express 6(8), 2738–2754 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. F. Spaide, “Volume-rendered angiographic and structural optical coherence tomography,” Retina 35(11), 2181–2187 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. Zhang, Q. Zhang, C.-L. Chen, and R. K. Wang, “Methods and algorithms for optical coherence tomography-based angiography: a review and comparison,” J. Biomed. Opt. 20(10), 100901 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. S. Gao, G. Liu, D. Huang, and Y. Jia, “Optimization of the split-spectrum amplitude-decorrelation angiography algorithm on a spectral optical coherence tomography system,” Opt. Lett. 40(10), 2305–2308 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. Lozzi, A. Agrawal, A. Boretsky, C. G. Welle, and D. X. Hammer, “Image quality metrics for optical coherence angiography,” Biomed. Opt. Express 6(7), 2435–2447 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P. Ossowski, A. Raiter-Smiljanic, A. Szkulmowska, D. Bukowska, M. Wiese, L. Derzsi, A. Eljaszewicz, P. Garstecki, and M. Wojtkowski, “Differentiation of morphotic elements in human blood using optical coherence tomography and a microfluidic setup,” Opt. Express 23(21), 27724–27738 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. Adhi, D. Ferrara, R. F. Mullins, C. R. Baumal, K. J. Mohler, M. F. Kraus, J. Liu, E. Badaro, T. Alasil, J. Hornegger, J. G. Fujimoto, J. S. Duker, and N. K. Waheed, “Characterization of choroidal layers in normal aging eyes using en face swept-source optical coherence tomography,” PLoS One 10(7), e0133080 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. M. Waldstein, H. Faatz, M. Szimacsek, A. M. Glodan, D. Podkowinski, A. Montuoro, C. Simader, B. S. Gerendas, and U. Schmidt-Erfurth, “Comparison of penetration depth in choroidal imaging using swept source vs spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Eye (Lond.) 29(3), 409–415 (2015).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2014 (7)

B. Vuong, A. M. D. Lee, T. W. H. Luk, C. Sun, S. Lam, P. Lane, and V. X. D. Yang, “High speed, wide velocity dynamic range Doppler optical coherence tomography (Part IV): split spectrum processing in rotary catheter probes,” Opt. Express 22(7), 7399–7415 (2014).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. Esmaeelpour, V. Kajic, B. Zabihian, R. Othara, S. Ansari-Shahrezaei, L. Kellner, I. Krebs, S. Nemetz, M. F. Kraus, J. Hornegger, J. G. Fujimoto, W. Drexler, and S. Binder, “Choroidal Haller’s and Sattler’s layer thickness measurement using 3-dimensional 1060-nm optical coherence tomography,” PLoS One 9(6), e99690 (2014).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. S. Jonnal, O. P. Kocaoglu, R. J. Zawadzki, S. H. Lee, J. S. Werner, and D. T. Miller, “The cellular origins of the outer retinal bands in optical coherence tomography images,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 55(12), 7904–7918 (2014).
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J. Xu, K. Wong, Y. Jian, and M. V. Sarunic, “Real-time acquisition and display of flow contrast using speckle variance optical coherence tomography in a graphics processing unit,” J. Biomed. Opt. 19(2), 026001 (2014).
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R. Poddar, D. Y. Kim, J. S. Werner, and R. J. Zawadzki, “In vivo imaging of human vasculature in the chorioretinal complex using phase-variance contrast method with phase-stabilized 1-μm swept-source optical coherence tomography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 19(12), 126010 (2014).
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D. M. Schwartz, J. Fingler, D. Y. Kim, R. J. Zawadzki, L. S. Morse, S. S. Park, S. E. Fraser, and J. S. Werner, “Phase-variance optical coherence tomography: a technique for noninvasive angiography,” Ophthalmology 121(1), 180–187 (2014).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

N. Uribe-Patarroyo, M. Villiger, and B. E. Bouma, “Quantitative technique for robust and noise-tolerant speed measurements based on speckle decorrelation in optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 22(20), 24411–24429 (2014).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2013 (12)

M. S. Mahmud, D. W. Cadotte, B. Vuong, C. Sun, T. W. H. Luk, A. Mariampillai, and V. X. D. Yang, “Review of speckle and phase variance optical coherence tomography to visualize microvascular networks,” J. Biomed. Opt. 18(5), 050901 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

R. Poddar, D. E. Cortés, J. S. Werner, M. J. Mannis, and R. J. Zawadzki, “Three-dimensional anterior segment imaging in patients with type 1 Boston Keratoprosthesis with switchable full depth range swept source optical coherence tomography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 18(8), 086002 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. Braaf, K. V. Vienola, C. K. Sheehy, Q. Yang, K. A. Vermeer, P. Tiruveedhula, D. W. Arathorn, A. Roorda, and J. F. de Boer, “Real-time eye motion correction in phase-resolved OCT angiography with tracking SLO,” Biomed. Opt. Express 4(1), 51–65 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Y. Jian, K. Wong, and M. V. Sarunic, “Graphics processing unit accelerated optical coherence tomography processing at megahertz axial scan rate and high resolution video rate volumetric rendering,” J. Biomed. Opt. 18(2), 026002 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. C. Hendargo, R. Estrada, S. J. Chiu, C. Tomasi, S. Farsiu, and J. A. Izatt, “Automated non-rigid registration and mosaicing for robust imaging of distinct retinal capillary beds using speckle variance optical coherence tomography,” Biomed. Opt. Express 4(6), 803–821 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. C. Chan, E. Y. Lam, and V. J. Srinivasan, “Comparison of Kasai autocorrelation and maximum likelihood estimators for Doppler optical coherence tomography,” IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 32(6), 1033–1042 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

W. Choi, K. J. Mohler, B. Potsaid, C. D. Lu, J. J. Liu, V. Jayaraman, A. E. Cable, J. S. Duker, R. Huber, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Choriocapillaris and choroidal microvasculature imaging with ultrahigh speed OCT angiography,” PLoS One 8(12), e81499 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D. Y. Kim, J. Fingler, R. J. Zawadzki, S. S. Park, L. S. Morse, D. M. Schwartz, S. E. Fraser, and J. S. Werner, “Optical imaging of the chorioretinal vasculature in the living human eye,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110(35), 14354–14359 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. Tokayer, Y. Jia, A.-H. Dhalla, and D. Huang, “Blood flow velocity quantification using split-spectrum amplitude-decorrelation angiography with optical coherence tomography,” Biomed. Opt. Express 4(10), 1909–1924 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

L. A. Branchini, M. Adhi, C. V. Regatieri, N. Nandakumar, J. J. Liu, N. Laver, J. G. Fujimoto, and J. S. Duker, “Analysis of choroidal morphologic features and vasculature in healthy eyes using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography,” Ophthalmology 120(9), 1901–1908 (2013).
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V. Kajić, M. Esmaeelpour, C. Glittenberg, M. F. Kraus, J. Honegger, R. Othara, S. Binder, J. G. Fujimoto, and W. Drexler, “Automated three-dimensional choroidal vessel segmentation of 3D 1060 nm OCT retinal data,” Biomed. Opt. Express 4(1), 134–150 (2013).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. Mrejen and R. F. Spaide, “Optical coherence tomography: Imaging of the choroid and beyond,” Surv. Ophthalmol. 58(5), 387–429 (2013).
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2012 (14)

R. Motaghiannezam, D. M. Schwartz, and S. E. Fraser, “In vivo human choroidal vascular pattern visualization using high-speed swept-source optical coherence tomography at 1060 nm,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(4), 2337–2348 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. Sohrab, K. Wu, and A. A. Fawzi, “A pilot study of morphometric analysis of choroidal vasculature in vivo, using en face optical coherence tomography,” PLoS One 7(11), e48631 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

L. Zhang, K. Lee, M. Niemeijer, R. F. Mullins, M. Sonka, and M. D. Abràmoff, “Automated segmentation of the choroid from clinical SD-OCT,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(12), 7510–7519 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K. Ohno-Matsui, M. Akiba, T. Ishibashi, and M. Moriyama, “Observations of vascular structures within and posterior to sclera in eyes with pathologic myopia by swept-source optical coherence tomography,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 53(11), 7290–7298 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K. K. C. Lee, A. Mariampillai, J. X. Z. Yu, D. W. Cadotte, B. C. Wilson, B. A. Standish, and V. X. D. Yang, “Real-time speckle variance swept-source optical coherence tomography using a graphics processing unit,” Biomed. Opt. Express 3(7), 1557–1564 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

C. Blatter, T. Klein, B. Grajciar, T. Schmoll, W. Wieser, R. Andre, R. Huber, and R. A. Leitgeb, “Ultrahigh-speed non-invasive widefield angiography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 17(7), 070505 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Y. Jia, O. Tan, J. Tokayer, B. Potsaid, Y. Wang, J. J. Liu, M. F. Kraus, H. Subhash, J. G. Fujimoto, J. Hornegger, and D. Huang, “Split-spectrum amplitude-decorrelation angiography with optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 20(4), 4710–4725 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K. Kurokawa, K. Sasaki, S. Makita, Y.-J. Hong, and Y. Yasuno, “Three-dimensional retinal and choroidal capillary imaging by power Doppler optical coherence angiography with adaptive optics,” Opt. Express 20(20), 22796–22812 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. Braaf, K. A. Vermeer, K. V. Vienola, and J. F. de Boer, “Angiography of the retina and the choroid with phase-resolved OCT using interval-optimized backstitched B-scans,” Opt. Express 20(18), 20516–20534 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

F. Jaillon, S. Makita, and Y. Yasuno, “Variable velocity range imaging of the choroid with dual-beam optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express 20(1), 385–396 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

C. K. Sheehy, Q. Yang, D. W. Arathorn, P. Tiruveedhula, J. F. de Boer, and A. Roorda, “High-speed, image-based eye tracking with a scanning laser ophthalmoscope,” Biomed. Opt. Express 3(10), 2611–2622 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

K. V. Vienola, B. Braaf, C. K. Sheehy, Q. Yang, P. Tiruveedhula, D. W. Arathorn, J. F. de Boer, and A. Roorda, “Real-time eye motion compensation for OCT imaging with tracking SLO,” Biomed. Opt. Express 3(11), 2950–2963 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. Szkulmowski, I. Gorczynska, D. Szlag, M. Sylwestrzak, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Efficient reduction of speckle noise in optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 20(2), 1337–1359 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. F. Kraus, B. Potsaid, M. A. Mayer, R. Bock, B. Baumann, J. J. Liu, J. Hornegger, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Motion correction in optical coherence tomography volumes on a per A-scan basis using orthogonal scan patterns,” Biomed. Opt. Express 3(6), 1182–1199 (2012).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2011 (7)

B. Braaf, K. A. Vermeer, V. A. D. P. Sicam, E. van Zeeburg, J. C. van Meurs, and J. F. de Boer, “Phase-stabilized optical frequency domain imaging at 1-µm for the measurement of blood flow in the human choroid,” Opt. Express 19(21), 20886–20903 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

H. C. Hendargo, R. P. McNabb, A.-H. Dhalla, N. Shepherd, and J. A. Izatt, “Doppler velocity detection limitations in spectrometer-based versus swept-source optical coherence tomography,” Biomed. Opt. Express 2(8), 2175–2188 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. Zotter, M. Pircher, T. Torzicky, M. Bonesi, E. Götzinger, R. A. Leitgeb, and C. K. Hitzenberger, “Visualization of microvasculature by dual-beam phase-resolved Doppler optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 19(2), 1217–1227 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

E. Jonathan, J. Enfield, and M. J. Leahy, “Correlation mapping method for generating microcirculation morphology from optical coherence tomography (OCT) intensity images,” J. Biophotonics 4(9), 583–587 (2011).
[PubMed]

G. Liu, W. Qi, L. Yu, and Z. Chen, “Real-time bulk-motion-correction free Doppler variance optical coherence tomography for choroidal capillary vasculature imaging,” Opt. Express 19(4), 3657–3666 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

C. A. Curcio, J. D. Messinger, K. R. Sloan, A. Mitra, G. McGwin, and R. F. Spaide, “Human chorioretinal layer thicknesses measured in macula-wide, high-resolution histologic sections,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52(7), 3943–3954 (2011).
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T. Klein, W. Wieser, C. M. Eigenwillig, B. R. Biedermann, and R. Huber, “Megahertz OCT for ultrawide-field retinal imaging with a 1050 nm Fourier domain mode-locked laser,” Opt. Express 19(4), 3044–3062 (2011).
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2010 (8)

J. Yeoh, W. Rahman, F. Chen, C. Hooper, P. Patel, A. Tufail, A. R. Webster, A. T. Moore, and L. Dacruz, “Choroidal imaging in inherited retinal disease using the technique of enhanced depth imaging optical coherence tomography,” Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 248(12), 1719–1728 (2010).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

A. Mariampillai, M. K. K. Leung, M. Jarvi, B. A. Standish, K. Lee, B. C. Wilson, A. Vitkin, and V. X. D. Yang, “Optimized speckle variance OCT imaging of microvasculature,” Opt. Lett. 35(8), 1257–1259 (2010).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

V. J. Srinivasan, J. Y. Jiang, M. A. Yaseen, H. Radhakrishnan, W. Wu, S. Barry, A. E. Cable, and D. A. Boas, “Rapid volumetric angiography of cortical microvasculature with optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 35(1), 43–45 (2010).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

V. J. Srinivasan, S. Sakadzić, I. Gorczynska, S. Ruvinskaya, W. Wu, J. G. Fujimoto, and D. A. Boas, “Quantitative cerebral blood flow with optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 18(3), 2477–2494 (2010).
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L. Yu and Z. Chen, “Doppler variance imaging for three-dimensional retina and choroid angiography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(1), 016029 (2010).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

L. An, H. M. Subhush, D. J. Wilson, and R. K. Wang, “High-resolution wide-field imaging of retinal and choroidal blood perfusion with optical microangiography,” J. Biomed. Opt. 15(2), 026011 (2010).
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R. K. Wang, L. An, P. Francis, and D. J. Wilson, “Depth-resolved imaging of capillary networks in retina and choroid using ultrahigh sensitive optical microangiography,” Opt. Lett. 35(9), 1467–1469 (2010).
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B. Potsaid, B. Baumann, D. Huang, S. Barry, A. E. Cable, J. S. Schuman, J. S. Duker, and J. G. Fujimoto, “Ultrahigh speed 1050nm swept source/Fourier domain OCT retinal and anterior segment imaging at 100,000 to 400,000 axial scans per second,” Opt. Express 18(19), 20029–20048 (2010).
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2009 (5)

A. Szkulmowska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Three-dimensional quantitative imaging of retinal and choroidal blood flow velocity using joint Spectral and Time domain Optical Coherence Tomography,” Opt. Express 17(13), 10584–10598 (2009).
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M. Hangai, M. Yamamoto, A. Sakamoto, and N. Yoshimura, “Ultrahigh-resolution versus speckle noise-reduction in spectral-domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 17(5), 4221–4235 (2009).
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J. Fingler, R. J. Zawadzki, J. S. Werner, D. Schwartz, and S. E. Fraser, “Volumetric microvascular imaging of human retina using optical coherence tomography with a novel motion contrast technique,” Opt. Express 17(24), 22190–22200 (2009).
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B. J. Vakoc, R. M. Lanning, J. A. Tyrrell, T. P. Padera, L. A. Bartlett, T. Stylianopoulos, L. L. Munn, G. J. Tearney, D. Fukumura, R. K. Jain, and B. E. Bouma, “Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging,” Nat. Med. 15(10), 1219–1223 (2009).
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I. Grulkowski, I. Gorczynska, M. Szkulmowski, D. Szlag, A. Szkulmowska, R. A. Leitgeb, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Scanning protocols dedicated to smart velocity ranging in spectral OCT,” Opt. Express 17(26), 23736–23754 (2009).
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2008 (6)

A. Szkulmowska, M. Szkulmowski, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Phase-resolved Doppler optical coherence tomography--limitations and improvements,” Opt. Lett. 33(13), 1425–1427 (2008).
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M. Szkulmowski, A. Szkulmowska, T. Bajraszewski, A. Kowalczyk, and M. Wojtkowski, “Flow velocity estimation using joint Spectral and Time domain Optical Coherence Tomography,” Opt. Express 16(9), 6008–6025 (2008).
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A. Mariampillai, B. A. Standish, E. H. Moriyama, M. Khurana, N. R. Munce, M. K. K. Leung, J. Jiang, A. Cable, B. C. Wilson, I. A. Vitkin, and V. X. D. Yang, “Speckle variance detection of microvasculature using swept-source optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Lett. 33(13), 1530–1532 (2008).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

L. An and R. K. K. Wang, “In vivo volumetric imaging of vascular perfusion within human retina and choroids with optical micro-angiography,” Opt. Express 16(15), 11438–11452 (2008).
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Y. K. Tao, A. M. Davis, and J. A. Izatt, “Single-pass volumetric bidirectional blood flow imaging spectral domain optical coherence tomography using a modified Hilbert transform,” Opt. Express 16(16), 12350–12361 (2008).
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B. Považay, B. Hermann, B. Hofer, V. Kajić, E. Simpson, T. Bridgford, and W. Drexler, “Wide-field optical coherence tomography of the choroid in vivo,” Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 50(4), 1856–1863 (2008).
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2007 (8)

F. C. Delori, R. H. Webb, D. H. Sliney, and American National Standards Institute, “Maximum permissible exposures for ocular safety (ANSI 2000), with emphasis on ophthalmic devices,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 24(5), 1250–1265 (2007).
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P. H. Tomlins and R. K. Wang, “Digital phase stabilization to improve detection sensitivity for optical coherence tomography,” Meas. Sci. Technol. 18(11), 3365–3372 (2007).
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T. M. Jørgensen, J. Thomadsen, U. Christensen, W. Soliman, and B. Sander, “Enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio in ophthalmic optical coherence tomography by image registration--method and clinical examples,” J. Biomed. Opt. 12(4), 041208 (2007).
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D. P. Popescu, M. D. Hewko, and M. G. Sowa, “Speckle noise attenuation in optical coherence tomography by compounding images acquired at different positions of the sample,” Opt. Commun. 269(1), 247–251 (2007).
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A. H. Bachmann, M. L. Villiger, C. Blatter, T. Lasser, and R. A. Leitgeb, “Resonant Doppler flow imaging and optical vivisection of retinal blood vessels,” Opt. Express 15(2), 408–422 (2007).
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J. Fingler, D. Schwartz, C. Yang, and S. E. Fraser, “Mobility and transverse flow visualization using phase variance contrast with spectral domain optical coherence tomography,” Opt. Express 15(20), 12636–12653 (2007).
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R. K. Wang, S. L. Jacques, Z. Ma, S. Hurst, S. R. Hanson, and A. Gruber, “Three dimensional optical angiography,” Opt. Express 15(7), 4083–4097 (2007).
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Y. Yasuno, Y. Hong, S. Makita, M. Yamanari, M. Akiba, M. Miura, and T. Yatagai, “In vivo high-contrast imaging of deep posterior eye by 1-µm swept source optical coherence tomography and scattering optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express 15(10), 6121–6139 (2007).
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2006 (3)

E. C. Lee, J. F. de Boer, M. Mujat, H. Lim, and S. H. Yun, “In vivo optical frequency domain imaging of human retina and choroid,” Opt. Express 14(10), 4403–4411 (2006).
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S. Makita, Y. Hong, M. Yamanari, T. Yatagai, and Y. Yasuno, “Optical coherence angiography,” Opt. Express 14(17), 7821–7840 (2006).
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A. E. Desjardins, B. J. Vakoc, G. J. Tearney, and B. E. Bouma, “Speckle reduction in OCT using massively-parallel detection and frequency-domain ranging,” Opt. Express 14(11), 4736–4745 (2006).
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2005 (2)

D. X. Hammer, R. D. Ferguson, J. C. Magill, L. A. Paunescu, S. Beaton, H. Ishikawa, G. Wollstein, and J. S. Schuman, “Active retinal tracker for clinical optical coherence tomography systems,” J. Biomed. Opt. 10(2), 024038 (2005).
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B. Park, M. C. Pierce, B. Cense, S.-H. Yun, M. Mujat, G. Tearney, B. Bouma, and J. de Boer, “Real-time fiber-based multi-functional spectral-domain optical coherence tomography at 1.3 µm,” Opt. Express 13(11), 3931–3944 (2005).
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2004 (1)

L. Wang, Y. Wang, S. Guo, J. Zhang, M. Bachman, G. P. Li, and Z. Chen, “Frequency domain phase-resolved optical Doppler and Doppler variance tomography,” Opt. Commun. 242(4), 345–350 (2004).

2003 (1)

N. Iftimia, B. E. Bouma, and G. J. Tearney, “Speckle reduction in optical coherence tomography by “path length encoded” angular compounding,” J. Biomed. Opt. 8(2), 260–263 (2003).
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Akiba, M.

Alasil, T.

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Andre, R.

Ansari-Shahrezaei, S.

Arathorn, D. W.

Bachman, M.

L. Wang, Y. Wang, S. Guo, J. Zhang, M. Bachman, G. P. Li, and Z. Chen, “Frequency domain phase-resolved optical Doppler and Doppler variance tomography,” Opt. Commun. 242(4), 345–350 (2004).

Bachmann, A. H.

Badaro, E.

Bailey, S. T.

Bajraszewski, T.

Barry, S.

Bartlett, L. A.

Baumal, C. R.

Baumann, B.

Beaton, S.

Biedermann, B. R.

Bieganowski, L.

Binder, S.

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Boas, D. A.

Bock, R.

Bonesi, M.

Boretsky, A.

A. Lozzi, A. Agrawal, A. Boretsky, C. G. Welle, and D. X. Hammer, “Image quality metrics for optical coherence angiography,” Biomed. Opt. Express 6(7), 2435–2447 (2015).
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Bouma, B.

Bouma, B. E.

Braaf, B.

Branchini, L. A.

Bridgford, T.

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Supplementary Material (3)

Name	Description
» Visualization 1: AVI (79450 KB)	Visualization 1
» Visualization 2: AVI (38042 KB)	Visualization 2
» Visualization 3: AVI (31267 KB)	Visualization 3

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Figures (19)

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
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Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
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Fig. 13
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Fig. 1

Swept-source OCT system schematic. FBG - fiber Bragg grating, PC - polarization controller, Lc - collimating lens, Lt - fixation target lens, DM - dichroic mirror, L1 - scan lens, L2 - objective lens.

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Fig. 2

Demonstration of OCTA depth profiles and selection of depth ranges for generation of en face projections in subject N1. First row: split-spectrum SV OCTA data with volume averaging, flattened to the inner limiting membrane for visualization of the inner retinal vessels and inner capillary plexus. Second row: SSADA data with volume averaging, flattened to the outer plexiform layer for visualization of the outer capillary plexus. Third row: split spectrum PV OCTA data with volume averaging, flattened to the RPE for visualization of the choroidal layers. Gaussian curves indicate selection of depth ranges for generation of en face projections shown in Figs. 3, 4, 7: green - inner retinal vessels, blue inner capillary plexus, teal - inner nuclear layer vessels, orange-outer capillary plexus, purple-choriocapillaris, red- Sattler's layer. Numerical labels in g): 1 - nerve fiber layer, 2 - inner plexiform layer, 3 - inner nuclear layer, 4 - outer plexiform layer, 5 - outer nuclear layer, 6 - external limiting membrane, 7 - inner/outer photoreceptor segment junction, 8 - cone outer segments, 9 - retinal pigment epithelium, 10 - choriocapillaris. Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior relatively to the fovea. Geometric depth locations are given in Z axes in the depth profiles. Horizontal image sizes: 1.8 mm.

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Fig. 3

Overview of the retinal vascular layers obtained in subject N1 using the SSADA method with volume averaging. Top row: OCTA projections. Bottom row: intensity projections. Projections of the retinal vessels were obtained by Gaussian windowing of the data flattened to the ILM as indicated by the green line in Fig. 2(a). Projections of the inner plexiform layer capillaries were obtained by Gaussian depth windowing indicated by the blue line in Fig. 2(a). Projections of the nerve fiber layer capillaries were obtained from full segmentation of the NFL (i.e. axial summation was performed between anterior and posterior boundaries of the NFL). Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior relatively to the fovea. Image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm.

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Fig. 4

Overview of the retinal vascular layers obtained from subject N1 with the SSADA method with volume averaging. Top row: OCTA projections. Bottom row: intensity projections. Projections of the outer capillary plexus were obtained by Gaussian windowing of the data flattened to the outer plexiform layer as indicated by the orange line in Fig. 2(d). Projections of the inner nuclear layer vessels were obtained by Gaussian depth windowing indicated by the teal line in Fig. 2(d). Yellow circles in b) indicate selected vessels connecting the outer capillary plexus with the retinal vessels, associated with corresponding clusters of capillaries indicated in a). Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior relative to the fovea. Image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm.

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Fig. 5

Results of user-guided retinal vessel tracing obtained with the Simple Neurite Tracker plugin of ImageJ software and showcased with ParaVIEW software. a) Volume rendering of the vessels overlaid with the vessel traces. b) 3D skeleton visualization of the traced vessels. Three vascular layers are visible: retinal vessels (blue), inner capillary plexus (yellow) and outer capillary plexus (red), as well as vessels connecting these layers. We have provided more detailed presentation of b) in Visualization 1.

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Fig. 6

Comparison of choriocapillaris imaging in a normal eye (top row, subject N3) and a geographic atrophy case (middle row, subject GA) obtained with the split spectrum PV OCT method with volume averaging (Av.). Purple in depth profiles denotes Gaussian depth windowing applied to the data flattened to the RPE. Bottom row: en face projections. N3 image sizes 1.8 mm by 1.3 mm located 8° nasal and 4° inferior from the fovea. GA image sizes: 1.6 mm by 1.6 mm located at 3° nasal and 3° inferior from the fovea.

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Fig. 7

Overview of the choroidal vascular layers obtained in subject N1 with the split spectrum PV OCT method with volume averaging. Top row: OCTA projections. Bottom row: intensity projections. Projections of the choriocapillaris were obtained by Gaussian windowing of the data flattened to the RPE as indicated by the purple line in Fig. 2(g). Projections of Sattler's layer vessels were obtained by Gaussian depth windowing indicated by the red line in Fig. 2(g). Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior from the fovea. Image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm.

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Fig. 8

Overview of the choroidal vascular layers - en face projection of Haller's layer obtained from the intensity data acquired in: a) a normal eye (subject N1), b) an age related-macular degeneration case, and c) a geographic atrophy (GA) case. Image locations: 8° nasal from the fovea in N1, and at the fovea in the AMD and GA cases. Image sizes: 9 x 9 mm.

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Fig. 9

Overview of the choroidal vascular layers - vessels at the level of scleral tissue obtained in the AMD patient. a) Intensity projection obtained at the level indicated by yellow lines in selected B-scans presented in b) and c). Arrow heads indicate deep channels, possibly short branches of the ciliary artery or veins of lymphatics, which can be better appreciated in the Visualization 2 and Visualization 3. Image sizes: 9 x 9 mm, centered at the fovea.

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Fig. 10

Comparison of performance of OCTA methods in imaging of the retinal vasculature in subject N1. First column: amplitude-decorrelation method. Second column: phase-variance OCT. Third column: speckle-variance OCT. First row: full spectrum, single volume data. Second row: split spectrum, single volume data. Third row: average (Av.) of 4 volumes obtained with the split spectrum data. Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior from the fovea. Image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm.

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Fig. 11

Comparison of performance of OCTA methods in imaging of the outer capillary plexus in subject N1. First column: amplitude-decorrelation method. Second column: phase-variance OCT. Third column: speckle-variance OCT. First row: full spectrum, single volume data. Second row: split spectrum, single volume data. Third row: average (Av.) of 4 volumes obtained with the split spectrum data. Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior from the fovea. Image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm.

Download Full Size | PPT Slide | PDF

Fig. 12

Comparison of OCTA depth profiles obtained in single (not averaged) volumes in subject N1. First column: amplitude-decorrelation method. Second column: phase-variance OCT. Third column: speckle-variance OCT. First row: full spectrum, single volume data. Second row: split spectrum, single volume data. Horizontal, dashed lines indicate the level of the “photoreceptor plateau.” The Gaussian curves indicate depth windowing of the data applied for calculation of the CNRs reported in Table 5. Blue curve: “photoreceptor plateau.” Purple curve: choriocapillaris.

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Fig. 13

Comparison of OCTA depth profiles obtained in average volumes in subject N1. Horizontal, dashed lines indicate the level of the “photoreceptor plateau” The Gaussian curves indicate depth windowing of the data applied for calculation of the CNRs reported in Table 6. Blue curve: “photoreceptor plateau.” Purple curve: choriocapillaris.

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Fig. 14

Comparison of OCTA performance for imaging of the choriocapillaris in subject N1. First column: amplitude- decorrelation method. Second column: phase-variance OCT. Third column: speckle-variance OCT. First row: full spectrum, single volume data. Second row: split spectrum, single volume data. Third row: average of 4 volumes obtained with the split-spectrum data. Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior from the fovea. Image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm.

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Fig. 15

Performance comparison of OCTA methods for imaging of Sattler's layer in subject N1. First column: amplitude-decorrelation method. Second column: phase-variance OCT. Third column: speckle-variance OCT. First row: full spectrum, single volume data. Second row: split spectrum, single volume data. Third row: average of 4 volumes obtained with the split spectrum data. Image location: 6° nasal, 4° inferior to the fovea. Image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm.

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Fig. 16

Comparison of OCTA imaging of the choroidal vasculature in three normal subjects. Images from different subjects are presented in columns. First row: OCTA depth profiles. Second row: OCTA projections of the choriocapillaris. Third row: OCTA projections of Sattler's layer. The Gaussian curves in OCTA depth profiles indicate depth windowing of the data applied for generation of the projections: purple line - choriocapillaris, red line - Sattler's layer. N1 image sizes: 1.8 x 1.8 mm located 6° nasal, 4° inferior relative to the fovea. N2 and N3 image sizes: 1.8 x 1.3 mm located 8° nasal and 4° inferior from the fovea.

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Fig. 17

Removal of motion-affected OCTA cross-sections. a) Absolute value of average intensity derivative across OCTA B-scans within the volume. Dashed line shows the rejection threshold corresponding to one standard deviation above the mean value. b) PV OCTA projection of the inner retinal vasculature with motion-affected B-scans visible as white horizontal lines. c) PV OCTA projection after removal of the motion-affected cross sections. d) Example motion-free OCTA B-scan. e) Example motion-affected OCTA B-scan.

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Fig. 18

Flow chart of the image flattening procedure.

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Fig. 19

Flow chart of the image flattening procedure.

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Tables (6)

Table 1 System specifications of the swept-source OCT system

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Table 2 OCT angiography scan protocols

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Table 3 OCT scan protocols for visualization of the Haller's layer

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Table 4 Gaussian windowing parameters

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Table 5 Contrast-to-noise ratios of the choriocapillaris imaging in single volume data sets

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Table 6 Contrast-to-noise ratios of the choriocapillaris imaging, average of 4 volumes

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Equations (9)

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A (x, y, z; t) = A_{0} (x, y, z; t) \exp [i Φ (x, y, z; t)]

A_{v} (t_{m}) = A_{0 v} (t_{m}) \exp [i Φ_{v} (t_{m})]

A_{v, m} = A_{0 v, m} \exp (i Φ_{v, m}) .

S V_{v, m} = \frac{1}{M} \sum_{m = 1}^{M} {(A_{0 v, m} - \frac{1}{M} \sum_{m = 1}^{M} A_{0 v, m})}^{2},

\begin{matrix} C_{v} (Δ t) = \frac{1}{M - 1} \sum_{m = 1}^{M - 1} \frac{A_{0 v} (t_{m}) A_{0 v} (t_{m} + Δ t)}{\frac{1}{2} (A_{0 v}^{2} (t_{m}) + A_{0 v}^{2} (t_{m} + Δ t))} \exp [- i Δ Φ_{v, m} (Δ t)], \\ Δ Φ_{v, m} (Δ t) = [Φ_{v} (t_{m} + Δ t) - Φ_{v} (t_{m})] . \end{matrix}

D_{v} (Δ t) = 1 - \frac{1}{M - 1} \sum_{m = 1}^{M - 1} \frac{A_{0 v} (t_{m}) A_{0 v} (t_{m} + Δ t)}{\frac{1}{2} (A_{0 v}^{2} (t_{m}) + A_{0 v}^{2} (t_{m} + Δ t))}

D_{v} = 1 - \frac{1}{M - 1} \sum_{m = 1}^{M - 1} \frac{A_{0 v, m} A_{0 v, m + 1}}{\frac{1}{2} (A_{0 v, m}^{2} + A_{0 v, m + 1}^{2})}

\begin{array}{l} P V_{v} = \frac{1}{M - 1} \sum_{m = 1}^{M - 1} {(Δ ϕ_{v, m} - \frac{1}{M - 1} \sum_{m = 1}^{M} Δ ϕ_{v, m})}^{2}, \\ Δ ϕ_{v, m} = Δ {ϕ^{'}}_{v, m} - Δ ϕ_{v, m}^{B u l k M o t i o n}, \\ Δ {ϕ^{'}}_{v, m} = ϕ_{v, m + 1} - ϕ_{v, m} . \end{array}

C N R = \frac{{\bar{I}}_{C C} - {\bar{I}}_{P R}}{σ_{P R}}

Parameter	Value
Laser sweep rate	100 000 sweeps/s
Central wavelength of the emitted light	1040 nm
Optical bandwidth (full width at half maximum)	100 nm
Light power at the cornea	1.3 mW
Axial imaging resolution (in tissue, n≈1.33)	~6 µm
Transverse imaging resolution	~14 µm
Axial imaging range	3.7 mm

Parameter			Value
Pixels per B-scan			1536
B-scan repeats (B-scans per MB-scan)			5
Number of MB-scans (slow scanner positions)			180
Total number of B-scans			900
Number of A-scans per B-scan			300
Number of scanner fly-back A-scans (not acquired)			100
A-scan acquisition time			10 µs
B-scan acquisition time (time interval for OCTA data analysis)			4 ms
Volume acquisition time			3.6 s
Data size			~830 MB
Subject code	N1	N2	N3	GA
Scanned retinal eccentricity	6° nasal, 4°inferior	8° nasal, 4°inferior	8° nasal, 4°inferior	3° nasal, 3°inferior
Scanned area	1.8 x 1.8 mm	1.8 x 1.3 mm	1.8 x 1.3 mm	1.6 x 1.6 mm
Horizontal step size	6 µm	6 µm	6 µm	5 µm
Vertical step size	10 µm	7 µm	7 µm	9 µm

Parameter	Value
Number of B-scans	200
Number of A-scans per B-scan	900
Volume acquisition time	2 s
Scanned area	9 x 9 mm
Horizontal step size	10 µm
Vertical step size	45 µm

OCTA method	N1Location 6N 4I	N2Location 8N 4I	N3Location 8N 4I
SV OCTA	0.771 ± 0.039	0.85 ± 0.14	0.70 ± 0.07
Split spectrum SV OCTA	0.878 ± 0.035	0.93 ± 0.12	0.96 ± 0.04
AD OCTA	1.011 ± 0.044	1.05 ± 0.13	1.13 ± 0.03
SSADA	1.049 ± 0.039	1.12 ± 0.18	1.16 ± 0.02
PV OCTA	1.344 ± 0.042	1.46 ± 0.17	1.48 ± 0.06
Split spectrum PV OCTA	1.377 ± 0.046	1.59 ± 0.12	1.51 ± 0.09

OCTA method	N1Location 6N 4I	N2Location 8N 4I	N3Location 8N 4I
SV OCTA	1.188	1.10	1.09
Split-spectrum SV OCTA	1.22	1.26	1.24
AD OCTA	1.411	1.50	1.52
SSADA	1.428	1.60	1.65
PV OCTA	1.94	2.01	2.16
Split-spectrum PV OCTA	1.97	2.03	2.19

Images flattened to	Depth reference	Imaged vascular layer	Subject code	Window location^a [µm]	FWHM thickness [µm]
Inner limiting membrane	Inner plexiform layer peak	Inner retina	N1	50	31
			N2	66
			N3	47
		Inner capillary plexus	N1, N2, N3	0	19
Outer plexiform layer	Outer plexiform layer peak	Inner nuclear layer	N1	30	6
			N2	27
			N3	27
		Outer capillary plexus	N1	12	14
			N2	11
			N3	11
Retinal pigment epithelium	Choriocapillaris layer peak	Choriocapillaris	N1, N2, N3	0	14
		Sattler's layer	N1	−15^b	24
			N2	−29
			N3	−39