Theory and technology of SPASERs

Malin Premaratne; Mark I. Stockman

doi:10.1364/AOP.9.000079

Advances in Optics and Photonics
Vol. 9,
Issue 1,
pp. 79-128
(2017)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/AOP.9.000079

Theory and technology of SPASERs

Malin Premaratne and Mark I. Stockman

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Malin Premaratne and Mark I. Stockman, "Theory and technology of SPASERs," Adv. Opt. Photon. 9, 79-128 (2017)

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Related Topics
Table of Contents Category
- Optics at Surfaces
Optics & Photonics Topics
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The topics in this list come from the Optics and Photonics Topics applied to this article.

About this Article
History
- Original Manuscript: October 3, 2016
- Revised Manuscript: December 7, 2016
- Manuscript Accepted: December 9, 2016
- Published: January 23, 2017

Abstract

Spaser is an acronym for surface plasmon amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. A spaser is effectively a nanoscale laser with subwavelength dimensions and a low-Q plasmonic resonator, which sustains its oscillations using stimulated emission of surface plasmons. The concept of stimulated emission to sustain plasmonic oscillations in a resonator was first described by David Bergman and Mark Stockman in 2003. Using a unified notation, we provide an up-to-date literature review of the major developments and latest advances in spaser theory and carry out a systematic exposition of some of the key results useful to understand the operation of spasers. Our presentation covers both semiclassical and quantum-mechanical formulations of spaser models as well as various designs and technologies demonstrated/suggested to illustrate key aspects of this technology. Even though many advances have already been made in spaser technology, there are many hurdles that need to be overcome to bring this technology up to the level of modern laser technology. We take especially great care to highlight the main challenges facing various spaser designs and the limitations of widely used methods and materials. This review is written for both specialists in the field and a general engineering–physics–chemistry readership.

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Defining Constant	Symbol	Value	Unit	Proposed Base Unit Definition
Hyperfine splitting of Cs	$Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$	9 192 631 770	$Hz = s^{- 1}$	$1 s = 9192631770 / Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$
Speed of light in vacuum	$c$	299 792 458	${ms}^{- 1}$	$1 m = (c / 299 792 458) / Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$
Plank constant	$h \equiv 2 π ℏ$	$6.626 069 57 \times 10^{- 34}$	Js	$1 kg = (h / 6.62606957 \times 10^{- 34}) Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs} / c^{2}$
Elementary charge	$e$	$1.602 176 565 \times 10^{- 19}$	$C = As$	$1 A = (e / 1.602 176 565 \times 10^{- 19}) Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$
Boltzmann constant	$k$	$1.380 648 8 \times 10^{- 23}$	J/K	$1 K = h Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs} / k$
Avogadro constant	$N_{A}$	$6.022 141 29 \times 10^{23}$	${mol}^{- 1}$	$1 mol = 6.02214129 \times 10^{23} / N_{A}$
Luminous efficacy	$K_{cd}$	683	lm/W	$1 cd = h K_{cd} Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}^{2}$

Dimension	1D	2D	3D
$D (E)$ for EM field ( $E = c ℏ k$ )	$\frac{1}{π ℏ c}$	$E / π ℏ^{2} c^{2}$	$E^{2} / π ℏ^{3} c^{3}$
$D (E)$ for free-electron gas ( $E = \frac{ℏ^{2} k^{2}}{2 m}$ )	$\frac{2 m}{π ℏ \sqrt{2 m E}} d E$	$\frac{m}{π ℏ^{2}} d E$	$\frac{m \sqrt{2 m E}}{π ℏ^{3}} d E$
$E_{F}$ for free-electron gas ( $E = \frac{ℏ^{2} k^{2}}{2 m}$ )	$\frac{ℏ^{2}}{2 m_{e}} {(\frac{π}{2} N_{e} (0))}^{2}$	$\frac{ℏ^{2}}{2 m_{e}} (2 π N_{e} (0))$	$\frac{ℏ^{2}}{2 m_{e}} {(3 π^{2} N_{e} (0))}^{2 / 3}$

Defining Constant	Symbol	Value	Unit	Proposed Base Unit Definition
Hyperfine splitting of Cs	$Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$	9 192 631 770	$Hz = s^{- 1}$	$1 s = 9192631770 / Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$
Speed of light in vacuum	$c$	299 792 458	${ms}^{- 1}$	$1 m = (c / 299 792 458) / Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$
Plank constant	$h \equiv 2 π ℏ$	$6.626 069 57 \times 10^{- 34}$	Js	$1 kg = (h / 6.62606957 \times 10^{- 34}) Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs} / c^{2}$
Elementary charge	$e$	$1.602 176 565 \times 10^{- 19}$	$C = As$	$1 A = (e / 1.602 176 565 \times 10^{- 19}) Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}$
Boltzmann constant	$k$	$1.380 648 8 \times 10^{- 23}$	J/K	$1 K = h Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs} / k$
Avogadro constant	$N_{A}$	$6.022 141 29 \times 10^{23}$	${mol}^{- 1}$	$1 mol = 6.02214129 \times 10^{23} / N_{A}$
Luminous efficacy	$K_{cd}$	683	lm/W	$1 cd = h K_{cd} Δ ν {({}^{133}{Cs})}_{hfs}^{2}$

Dimension	1D	2D	3D
$D (E)$ for EM field ( $E = c ℏ k$ )	$\frac{1}{π ℏ c}$	$E / π ℏ^{2} c^{2}$	$E^{2} / π ℏ^{3} c^{3}$
$D (E)$ for free-electron gas ( $E = \frac{ℏ^{2} k^{2}}{2 m}$ )	$\frac{2 m}{π ℏ \sqrt{2 m E}} d E$	$\frac{m}{π ℏ^{2}} d E$	$\frac{m \sqrt{2 m E}}{π ℏ^{3}} d E$
$E_{F}$ for free-electron gas ( $E = \frac{ℏ^{2} k^{2}}{2 m}$ )	$\frac{ℏ^{2}}{2 m_{e}} {(\frac{π}{2} N_{e} (0))}^{2}$	$\frac{ℏ^{2}}{2 m_{e}} (2 π N_{e} (0))$	$\frac{ℏ^{2}}{2 m_{e}} {(3 π^{2} N_{e} (0))}^{2 / 3}$

Abstract

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Tables (2)

Equations (55)

Advances in Optics and Photonics