Micron-sized droplets irradiated with a pulsed CO<sub>2</sub> laser: measurement of explosion and breakdown thresholds

Ronald G. Pinnick; Abhijit Biswas; Robert L. Armstrong; S. Gerard Jennings; J. David Pendleton; Gilbert Fernández

doi:10.1364/AO.29.000918

Applied Optics
Vol. 29,
Issue 7,
pp. 918-925
(1990)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.29.000918

Micron-sized droplets irradiated with a pulsed CO₂ laser: measurement of explosion and breakdown thresholds

Ronald G. Pinnick, Abhijit Biswas, Robert L. Armstrong, S. Gerard Jennings, J. David Pendleton, and Gilbert Fernández

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Ronald G. Pinnick, Abhijit Biswas, Robert L. Armstrong, S. Gerard Jennings, J. David Pendleton, and Gilbert Fernández, "Micron-sized droplets irradiated with a pulsed CO₂ laser: measurement of explosion and breakdown thresholds," Appl. Opt. 29, 918-925 (1990)

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Abstract

Measurements of minimum CO₂ laser fluence required to explode or disintegrate 10–60 μm radius droplets of water, ethanol, diesel (hexadecane), CCl₄, bromoform, and ethyl bromide are reported. Threshold fluences range from 0.4 J cm⁻² for 10-μum radius ethanol drops to 20 J cm⁻² for 30-μm bromoform drops. Threshold fluences for water droplets are ~3 J cm⁻² independent of drop size. Comparison of the measurements to calculations of laser fluence required for considered absorbing droplets to reach superheat temperature is in good agreement for cases where liquid material properties are known, suggesting that superheating of droplets is the dominant mechanism causing explosion/disintegration. Measured droplet-induced laser breakdown thresholds are considerably higher than explosion thresholds and have less dependence on droplet size and composition. The highest breakdown threshold values are for water drops, which range from 150 to 280 J cm⁻² (0.9−1.7 × 10⁹ W cm⁻²) compared with 670 J cm⁻² (4.0 × 10⁹ W cm⁻²) for clean air breakdown for the laser pulse length and spot size.

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Material	Drop radius (μm)	Explosion Threshold		Breakdown Threshold
Material	Drop radius (μm)	(J cm⁻²)	(MW cm⁻²)	(J cm⁻²)	(GW cm⁻²)
Air	—			670	4.0
Distilled water	12.2	2.42	14.5	284	1.70
	17.4	2.39	14.3	227	1.36
	17.4	2.47	14.8	240	1.44
	28.2	3.37	20.2	195	1.17
	29.1	2.70	16.2	156	0.94
	29.3	3.77	22.6	193	1.15
	29.4	3.90	23.4	148	0.88
	29.7	2.69	16.1	157	0.94
	37.7	3.00	18.0	209	1.25
	37.7	3.02	18.1	243	1.45
	40.4	3.11	18.6	164	0.99
	40.4	3.14	18.8	—	—
	51.6	2.56	15.3	156	0.93
	52.1	2.96	17.7	149	0.89
Boiled water	40.8	3.02	18.1	211	1.26
Tap water	41.0	2.46	14.7	176	1.06
Ethanol	10.4	0.42	2.51	281	1.68
	10.4	0.49	2.96	—	—
	16.6	0.49	2.94	153	0.92
	16.6	0.36	2.17	—	—
	30.1	0.73	4.3	214	1.28
	30.6	1.03	6.2	179	1.07
	30.7	1.01	6.0	190	1.14
	37.1	0.73	4.4	180	1.08
	43.3	0.88	5.2	180	1.08
	52.6	1.21	7.2	231	1.39
	54.2	1.40	8.4	169	1.01
	54.2	1.45	8.7	—	—
Diesel	9.3	1.21	7.2	108	0.65
	13.5	1.68	10.0	99	0.60
	17.6	1.55	9.3	102	0.61
	31.4	1.46	8.7	101	0.61
	32.4	2.40	14.4	91	0.54
	32.5	2.12	12.7	82	0.49
	40.8	1.78	10.7	99	0.59
	44.4	2.71	16.2	110	0.66
	55	2.42	14.5	121	0.72
	55	2.54	15.2	—	—
Diesel cylinder	31	7.6	45	147	0.88
CCl₄	28.7	6.0	36	88	0.53
CCl₄	29.7	8.1	48	86	0.52
Bromoform	31.2	19.6	117	95	0.57
	31.2	17.8	107	70	0.42
	32	16.6	99	63	0.38
	32	24	146	72	0.43
	32	28	169	66	0.40
Ethyl bromide	26.4	0.70	4.2	124	0.74

Liquid	Density (g cm⁻³)	Specific heat (J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹)	Superheat temperature (°C)	Refractive index n − ik
Water	1.000019	4.18618	3056	1.179–0.071i6
Diesel	0.845619	2.30218	38520	1.44–0.00403i22
Ethanol	0.789319	2.04818	20121	1.39–0.01i22

Material	Drop radius (μm)	Explosion Threshold		Breakdown Threshold
Material	Drop radius (μm)	(J cm⁻²)	(MW cm⁻²)	(J cm⁻²)	(GW cm⁻²)
Air	—			670	4.0
Distilled water	12.2	2.42	14.5	284	1.70
	17.4	2.39	14.3	227	1.36
	17.4	2.47	14.8	240	1.44
	28.2	3.37	20.2	195	1.17
	29.1	2.70	16.2	156	0.94
	29.3	3.77	22.6	193	1.15
	29.4	3.90	23.4	148	0.88
	29.7	2.69	16.1	157	0.94
	37.7	3.00	18.0	209	1.25
	37.7	3.02	18.1	243	1.45
	40.4	3.11	18.6	164	0.99
	40.4	3.14	18.8	—	—
	51.6	2.56	15.3	156	0.93
	52.1	2.96	17.7	149	0.89
Boiled water	40.8	3.02	18.1	211	1.26
Tap water	41.0	2.46	14.7	176	1.06
Ethanol	10.4	0.42	2.51	281	1.68
	10.4	0.49	2.96	—	—
	16.6	0.49	2.94	153	0.92
	16.6	0.36	2.17	—	—
	30.1	0.73	4.3	214	1.28
	30.6	1.03	6.2	179	1.07
	30.7	1.01	6.0	190	1.14
	37.1	0.73	4.4	180	1.08
	43.3	0.88	5.2	180	1.08
	52.6	1.21	7.2	231	1.39
	54.2	1.40	8.4	169	1.01
	54.2	1.45	8.7	—	—
Diesel	9.3	1.21	7.2	108	0.65
	13.5	1.68	10.0	99	0.60
	17.6	1.55	9.3	102	0.61
	31.4	1.46	8.7	101	0.61
	32.4	2.40	14.4	91	0.54
	32.5	2.12	12.7	82	0.49
	40.8	1.78	10.7	99	0.59
	44.4	2.71	16.2	110	0.66
	55	2.42	14.5	121	0.72
	55	2.54	15.2	—	—
Diesel cylinder	31	7.6	45	147	0.88
CCl₄	28.7	6.0	36	88	0.53
CCl₄	29.7	8.1	48	86	0.52
Bromoform	31.2	19.6	117	95	0.57
	31.2	17.8	107	70	0.42
	32	16.6	99	63	0.38
	32	24	146	72	0.43
	32	28	169	66	0.40
Ethyl bromide	26.4	0.70	4.2	124	0.74

Liquid	Density (g cm⁻³)	Specific heat (J g⁻¹ °C⁻¹)	Superheat temperature (°C)	Refractive index n − ik
Water	1.000019	4.18618	3056	1.179–0.071i6
Diesel	0.845619	2.30218	38520	1.44–0.00403i22
Ethanol	0.789319	2.04818	20121	1.39–0.01i22

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Applied Optics