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Abstract
In this work, we investigated the effect of 2 MeV proton irradiation on the performance of InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice long-wave infrared detectors by combining ground-based irradiation experiments with Stopping and Range of Ions in Matter (SRIM) computer simulations. We found that irradiation with 2 MeV protons significantly increases the dark current density of the detector by more than two orders of magnitude. At the same time, the quantum efficiency decreases by an order of magnitude. Moreover, proton irradiation degrades the device's performance by raising bulk and surface leakage currents. As the mesa size of the device increases, the proportion of surface leakage current in the total dark current drops. When the mesa size is smaller, the detector irradiation damage is greater. In addition, simulations indicate that the amount of damage produced by 2 MeV proton irradiation rises as irradiation fluences increase. The trends of the irradiation damage produced by the SRIM simulation results and the photocurrent measurements after proton irradiation are consistent, whereas the dark current measurements are identical only at small fluences.
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1. Introduction
Infrared detection technology plays a significant role in military, scientific, industrial, and space applications [1]. Currently, infrared detectors and focal plane arrays are used in numerous instruments developed by NASA for Earth and planetary science missions [2,3]. High-performance infrared detectors are required for everything from short-wave infrared (SWIR) and mid-wave infrared (MWIR) to long-wave infrared (LWIR) and very-long-wave infrared (VLWIR). While the SWIR and MWIR bands are incredibly well-suited for detecting high-temperature objects, imaging in the LWIR band at lower temperatures exhibits the advantage of capturing things according to Planck's blackbody radiation law and is more suitable for observing the universe [4,5]. In the past, the material of choice for most high-performance infrared detectors and space applications was mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe) [6]. Its radiation tolerance has been the subject of numerous studies. However, the inherent manufacturing challenges associated with the costly and comparatively poor material homogeneity of HgCdTe infrared detection technology, particularly in the LWIR field [7,8], have led researchers to study antimonide type-II superlattices (T2SLs) detection technology. They discovered that T2SLs have the advantages of remarkable homogeneity, band gap tunability, and a low Auger recombination rate. After years of research, significant advances have been made in material development, device structure design, and fabrication methods [9–11], T2SLs can meet the requirements of a wide range of application scenarios, making them an alternative candidate for third-generation infrared detectors besides HgCdTe [12].
Furthermore, the performance of infrared detectors in the sophisticated space environments deteriorates over time due to the destructive effects of Van Allen radiation belt particles, solar events, and galactic cosmic rays [13,14]. No matter the space radiation environment, the energy range of charged particles is immense and their species are complicated. The resulting radiation effect can cause degradation of semiconductor device performance, such as gain reduction, operating point drift, or even utter damage [15]. The effect of proton irradiation on semiconductor devices predominantly generates ionization and displacement effects [16]. Among them, the ionization effect refers to the interaction between radiation particles and electrons in the material, the generation of electron-hole pairs, and the ionization process. The displacement effect is an irradiation effect in which the incident particle collides with lattice atoms and transfers a portion of its energy to the lattice atoms through the collision, causing the lattice atoms to leave their original position and eventually forming a vacancy pair of defects [16–18]. Cowan et al. discovered that the InAs/GaSb infrared detector with an nBn structure is tolerant to γ irradiation [19]. Steenbergen and Soibel et al. studied the proton irradiation tolerance of InAs/InAsSb and InAs/GaSb infrared detectors [20,21]. They found that the InAs/InAsSb superlattices are sufficiently tolerant to proton irradiation and may be suitable for space infrared detector arrays. Moreover, the proton irradiation has only a minor effect on the spectral characteristics of LWIR InAs/GaSb superlattice photodiodes based on the CBIRD design. Jackson et al. investigated the impact of 2 MeV proton irradiation on four long-wave infrared type-II superlattice photodiodes with various structures [22]. They discovered that the superlattice photodiode became more p-type after irradiation, and decreases in quantum efficiency were consistent with the reduction in carrier lifetime. Magno et al. investigated the effects of 2 MeV proton irradiation on InAs/AlSb/GaSb resonant interband tunneling diodes [23]. The photodiodes with 5 and 13 ML AlSb barrier thickness were irradiated and measured several times until fluences reached 1 × 1015 p/cm2 and 2 × 1014 p/cm2, respectively. They detected that the current due to radiation-induced defects has a nonlinear voltage dependence, with a large increase occurring in the voltage range between the negative resistance peak and the valley.
Hence, before the antimonide infrared detectors can be used in space, it is crucial to study the behavior of the antimonide infrared detectors under particle irradiation to simulate the environmental conditions in space [5,24]. This work lays a solid theoretical foundation for the future applications of antimonide superlattice infrared detection in space [25]. In addition, it contributes to the search for methods and measures of irradiation reinforcement, which have practical significance in enhancing the device's operational stability, reliability, and lifetime.
2. Irradiation experiment and samples structure
2.1 Irradiation experiment
The proton irradiation experiments were accomplished in the Key Laboratory of Applied Ion Beam Physics, Ministry of Education, Fudan University, utilizing their 9SDH-2 2 × 3 MV tandem electrostatic accelerator, which can continuously provide high-energy protons with energies up to 2 MeV. Both of the proton energy and the proton beam flow are stable. During the irradiation, the samples are fixed in the sample holder in the cavity and they are in an open-circuit state. Due to the electronic components on the surface of the satellite to the inside of the satellite equipment, they are exposed to radiation doses as high as 1 × 106 to 1 × 109 rad (Si) for long periods in a harsh radiation environment (there is no equivalent aluminum for radiation shielding at all) [26]. For 2 MeV proton irradiation, this corresponds to fluences of 5 × 1011 to 5 × 1014 p/cm2 [23]. At the same time, most satellites dedicated to space exploration will face a more severe total dose environment since their detection missions normally include the detection of charged particles in space.
In addition, considering the limitations of the irradiation experimental equipment conditions, the irradiation and the device performance measurement equipment are located at various locations. In order to ensure that the experimental methods and equipment for dark current and photocurrent measurements before and after irradiation are identical, the performance measurement of the devices after irradiation is re-measured within two days. Therefore, to avoid annealing of the devices within two days after irradiation, we investigated the performance effects of 2 MeV proton irradiation on type-II superlattice LWIR detectors at total irradiation doses up to 1 × 1015 p/cm2, and analyzed how much damage the detector's performance suffers in the worst total dose environment and the most extreme case. In the future, this can be used as the basis for more efficient total dose protection of the device.
2.2 Samples structure
Three structurally identical samples of InAs/GaSb type-II superlattices were used for the study, as shown in Fig. 1 Samples were grown on GaSb (100) substrate by MBE, including the initially grown 500 nm GaSb buffer layer as well as the entire InAs/GaSb superlattice structure and the top 10 nm InAs cap layer. The entire InAs/GaSb superlattice structure is as follows (from bottom to top): 350 nm P+ GaSb, 170 nm P+ contact layer 10MLs InAs/10MLs GaSb SLs, 130 nm P electron barrier layer 10MLs InAs/10MLs GaSb SLs, 3000 nm P absorbing layer 13MLs InAs/7MLs GaSb SLs, 400 nm graded-bandgap hole barrier layer, graded from P InAs/GaSb SLs to 15MLs InAs/4MLs AlSb SLs, and 250 nm N contact layer 15MLs InAs/ 4MLs GaSb SLs. Figure 2 shows the relative spectral response of the samples at 77 K, showing a 50% cut-off wavelength of 9.85 µm. The specific measurement conditions were performed with the detector encapsulated in a dewar facing the blackbody (4100 High Temperature Cavity Blackbody, SANTA BARBARA INFRARED, INC) with a blackbody temperature of 900 °C, and the spectroscopy was performed by a grating spectrometer (Oriel Cornerstone 130 1/8 m Monochromator, Newport). The spectral response was measured with the detector at zero bias, and the spectral measurement range was from 7.3 µm to 10.5 µm, with a step size of 50 nm.
The samples are divided into three sets for the irradiation experiments, each with four various mesa sizes (15, 30, 60, 150 µm). Three samples were separated from the same epitaxial wafer and utilized the same process conditions to guarantee the consistency of the experiments. Each sample was subjected to dark current and photocurrent measurements at an irradiation fluence of 1 × 1014, 5 × 1014, and 1 × 1015 p/cm2. The photocurrent is measured by facing a 300 K blackbody. An analysis of the effect of proton irradiation on the InAs/GaSb superlattice LWIR detector is produced by observing changes in detector performance.
3. Experiment results and analysis
3.1 Dark current measurement results and analysis
The dark current density and impedance change at different irradiation fluences were utilized to determine how proton irradiation affects the performance of InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice LWIR detectors. The detector was placed in a 77 K dewar, and the current-voltage characteristics of the samples with various mesa sizes were measured under a completely enclosed cold shield using a current source meter. Figure 3 illustrates the dark current density and RA for mesa sizes of 30 and 150 µm, operating at temperature T = 77 K, measured after detectors were exposed to proton irradiation with varied fluences.
Fig. 3. Dark current density of the (a) 30 µm and (c) 150 µm samples operating at temperature T = 77 K measured after the detector was exposed to different proton irradiation fluences. RA of the (b) 30 µm and (d) 150 µm samples measured after the detector was exposed to different proton irradiation fluences at temperature T = 77 K.
At -0.05 V bias, Fig. 3(a) and (b) can be observed that the dark current density increased from 5.78 × 10−4 A/cm2 to 7.87 × 10−3 A/cm2 after irradiation of the 30 µm sample at the fluence of 1 × 1014 p/cm2, and the zero bias impedance declined from 85.09 Ω*cm2 to 13.79 Ω*cm2. As the irradiation fluence rises, the dark current density grows, and the impedance diminishes. Until the irradiation fluence is up to 1 × 1015 p/cm2, the dark current density directly rises to 2.06 × 10−1 A/cm2, and the zero-bias impedance falls to 2.61 Ω*cm2. As for Fig. 3(c) and (d), the dark current density increased from 1.09 × 10−3 A/cm2 to 3.91 × 10−2 A/cm2 after irradiation at a fluence of 1 × 1014 p/cm2 for the 150 µm sample, and the zero bias impedance declined from 26.13 Ω*cm2 to 2.01 Ω*cm2. As the irradiation fluence rises, the dark current density slightly increases, and the impedance diminishes. Until it reaches the maximum fluence of 1 × 1015 p/cm2, the dark current density increases to 1.54 × 10−1 A/cm2, and the zero bias impedance directly decreases to 0.31 Ω*cm2. Before irradiation, although the LWIR detector is a barrier structure, its dark current is not dominated by diffusion but by generation-recombination and tunneling currents. Therefore, its current value varies with the bias voltage. After irradiation, on the one hand, some electrical defects are generated, which contribute to the electrical properties and increase the bulk dark current. On the other hand, at the device sidewalls, the surface density of states increases, increasing the sidewall leakage. The increase in sidewall leakage leads to an increase in current under positive bias.
Theoretically, the ionization effect is generated when protons irradiate the device, and a certain number of electron-hole pairs are formed, which effectively raises the non-equilibrium carrier concentration of the device [27]. These non-equilibrium carriers form the photocurrents under the action of the built-in electric fields. As the irradiation fluence progressively rises, the resulting photocurrent also gradually increases. Nevertheless, the photocurrent rise rate decreases as the irradiation fluence increases. This situation can most likely be attributed to the increasing damage introduced by the displacement effect of the growing irradiated fluences, which progressively lowers the number of non-equilibrium carriers produced by the irradiated ionization effect. We suspect that the displacement effect is only now beginning to dominate. Displacement damage introduces donor defect levels at or near the bottom of the conduction band, which decreases the hole concentration in the P region and increases the minority carrier lifetime, leading to a tendency to decrease the dark current of the device. However, the irradiation damage introduced by the displacement effect becomes more substantial when the fluence is up to 1 × 1015 p/cm2. A cascade of collisional effects is generated at this instant, forming a cluster of Frenkel defects, which introduces numerous defects. Subsequently, the carrier lifetime is drastically diminished, significantly increasing the dark current density.
Figure 4 illustrates the dark current density for devices with different mesa sizes at −0.05 V bias as a function of irradiation fluences. We discovered that the smaller the mesa size of the sample, the more it is affected by irradiation when the fluence is up to 5 × 1014 p/cm2. Moreover, as the fluence increases, the dark current density increases considerably faster for smaller mesa sizes than for larger ones. It may indicate that irradiation affects the surface leakage current, which can be verified from an analysis of the dark current density vs. perimeter-to-area ratio (P/A). The measured dark current density can be expressed as seen in Eq. (1) [28].
P is the device perimeter, A is the area, and Jb and Js are the bulk dark and surface current densities.
Fig. 4. After the detector was exposed to different proton irradiation fluences, the dark current density of four different mesa size samples operating at temperature T = 77 K and a -0.05 V bias was measured.
The surface leakage current is related to the device's size, while the bulk dark current density does not. The dark current was ultimately the bulk dark current when the P/A was zero. As the P/A ratio goes up, the surface leakage current goes up, and so does the ratio of the surface leakage current to the total dark current. Correspondingly, we determine the bulk dark current after irradiation by a linear fit to the intersection of the Y-axis. In Fig. 5, it can be observed that the intercept increased from 3.27 × 10−3 to 1.11 × 10−1 A/cm2, and the slope increased from 6.12 × 10−7 to 9.60 × 10−5. The result indicates that the proton irradiation increases the bulk and surface dark currents, and both have increased by two orders of magnitude.
Fig. 5. The dark current density was measured at T = 77 K and –0.05 V bias vs. perimeter-to-area (P/A) ratio for irradiation fluences of 0 and 1 × 1015 p/cm2.
3.2 Photocurrent measurement results and analysis
After testing the dark currents, a photocurrent was also measured for the three samples before and after irradiation. When we measured the photocurrent, the cold screen was removed from the dewar, and the detector faced a 300 K blackbody. We called the measured current a 300 K blackbody photocurrent. If the dark current value is subtracted from the 300 K blackbody photocurrent, the differential value can reflect the change in quantum efficiency of the detector under various proton irradiation fluences. These differential current values at varied irradiation fluences for 30 and 150 µm mesa size samples are shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. The current density difference value between dark current and 300 K blackbody radiation measurements for the (a) 30 µm and (b) 150 µm sample operating at temperature T = 77 K measured after the detector has been exposed to various proton irradiation fluences.
Figure 6(a) illustrates how the detector's quantum efficiency declines as irradiation fluences rise. As for the sample with a mesa size of 30 µm before irradiation, the difference in current density between the 300 K blackbody photocurrent and the dark current measurements at -0.05 V bias is 2.71 × 10−2 A/cm2. After irradiation at the fluence of 1 × 1014 p/cm2, this value reduces to 4.27 × 10−3 A/cm2. The irradiation fluence peaked at 1 × 1015 p/cm2, and the difference dropped to 2.5 × 10−3 A/cm2. In Fig. 6(b), for the sample with a mesa size of 150 µm before irradiation, the difference in current density between the 300 K blackbody photocurrent and the dark current measurements at -0.05 V bias is 2.15× 10−2 A/cm2. After irradiation at a fluence of 1 × 1014 p/cm2, this value reduces to 1.11 × 10−2 A/cm2. As the irradiation fluence peaked at 1 × 1015 p/cm2, the difference dropped to 5.92 × 10−3 A/cm2. The results demonstrated that the quantum efficiency of the device was diminished after proton irradiation, and the variation with irradiation fluences was similar to the dark current measurement result. We speculate that the irradiated detector introduces plenty of defects in the P absorb layer InAs/GaSb SLs layer, which will accelerate the recombination of the photo-generated carriers and reduce the collection efficiency, resulting in an order of magnitude reduction in the quantum efficiency.
However, there is a tendency for the differential current to increase slightly after irradiation at a relatively large bias, implying an enhancement of the quantum efficiency. Furthermore, we found that the quantum efficiency of the cell decreased with the increase of irradiation fluence in the study of the irradiation effect of the GaInP/GaAs/Ge multi-junction cell. Nevertheless, it is notable that the external quantum efficiency (EQE) spectrum shows a unique phenomenon where the quantum efficiency increases after irradiation in a certain band range, called EQE artifact behavior. The phenomenon is common in multi-junction cells and is primarily due to the combined action of shunt resistance and fluorescence coupling effects, which are more sensitive to irradiation damage [29–31]. In addition, we compare the EQE artifact behavior of the InAs/GaSb superlattice detector with that of the GaInP/GaAs/Ge multi-junction cell. In this paper, the InAs/GaSb superlattice infrared detector adopts a multi-layer graded barrier structure. Multiple layers of materials with diverse band gaps in the structure form high-low junctions and pn junctions, which are highly similar to multi-junction cells. To sum up, we deemed that it is the similarity in the device structure between the InAs/GaSb superlattice detector and the GaInP/GaAs/Ge multi-junction cell that leads to the slight increase in the quantum efficiency in Fig. 6, the root cause of which is the artifact behavior.
4. Simulation results and analysis
Besides using ground-based radiation and onboard spacecraft measurements to investigate the radiation effects of semiconductor electronic components, computer simulation methods are increasingly popular with the advancement of technology [32]. Due to the substantial savings in test costs and avoidance of unnecessary test procedures, several software programs have been developed to study the irradiation effects of semiconductor materials and devices. The Monte Carlo methods are the most widely utilized [33]. Stopping and range of ions in matter (SRIM) is a computer program based on the Monte Carlo method to simulate the trajectory distribution and energy loss of ions in matter, which consists of two main modules, Tables of Stopping and Range of Ions in Simple Targets (SR) and Transport of Ions in Matter (TRIM) [34–36]. In order to investigate the interaction between 2 MeV proton irradiation and the main structural layers of the detector, we combined with the SRIM proton irradiation simulation software and modeled the main structural layers of the InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice LWIR detector. At the same time, to better investigate the degree of irradiation damage caused by protons in InAs/GaSb materials, we use displacements per atom (DPA) as a measure of the average displacements per atom, which is calculated as seen in Eq. (2) [37].
F is the irradiation fluences, R denotes the average number of ion vacancies generated per incident ion per unit distance, and N0 is the atomic number density of the InAs/GaSb material.
According to the formula of DPA, we found that the maximum irradiation damage to the detector caused by proton irradiation was at a depth of 3.5 µm. Figure 7 illustrates a plot of the maximal irradiation damage generated at 3.5 µm after SRIM simulation vs. the dark current and photocurrent measurements with the mesa size of 30 µm at -0.05 V bias. We can find that the trends of irradiation damage produced by SRIM simulation and photocurrent measurement after proton irradiation are consistent, while the dark current measurements are identical only at small fluences. When the irradiation fluence amounts to 1 × 1015 p/cm2, it is considered that proton irradiation causes damage to the material near the detector sidewall, increasing the surface state between the device and the passivation layer, thus making the surface leakage current increase. As a result, a substantial increase in the current density occurs at the maximum irradiation fluence in the dark current measurement.
Fig. 7. The maximal irradiation damage generated at 3.5 µm after SRIM simulation vs. current density of the dark current and photocurrent measurements with the mesa size of 30 µm at -0.05 V bias.
5. Conclusion
In a nutshell, this paper has investigated the performance effects of 2 MeV proton irradiation on InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice LWIR detectors via ground-based irradiation experiments and SRIM program simulations. Experimental results indicate that the dark current density of the detector increases by more than two orders of magnitude, and the quantum efficiency decreases by one order of magnitude after irradiation. At the same time, the proton irradiation damages the material near the detector sidewalls, increasing the surface state between the detector and the passive layer, increasing the surface leakage current, and causing significant degradation of the detector performance. As the fluence increases, the dark current density increases considerably faster for smaller mesa sizes than for larger ones. In addition, the SRIM simulation results show that the irradiation damage due to 2 MeV protons increases with increasing irradiation fluences. The trends of the irradiation damage produced by the SRIM simulations and photocurrent measurements after proton irradiation are consistent, while the dark current measurements are identical only at small fluences. Therefore, to design irradiation-resistant and high-performance InAs/GaSb type-II superlattice LWIR detectors in the future, a combination of optimizing device structures, finding effective passivation means, and suitable planar geometries are needed. These approaches will help reduce irradiation damage and improve the detector's stability, reliability, and lifetime when used in space.
Funding
National Natural Science Foundation of China (12174461, 12234012, 61774130, 61835013); National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFA0718300, 2021YFA1400900, 2021YFA1402100); The Space Application System of the China Manned Space Program.
Disclosures
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data availability
Data underlying the results presented in this paper are not publicly available at this time but may be obtained from the authors upon reasonable request.
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