Abstract
The fading channel model for generating a random time-varying signal based on the atmospheric turbulence spectrum for space-to-ground laser links is discussed. The temporal frequency characteristics of the downlink are theoretically derived based on the von Karman spectrum. The rms wind speed based on the Bufton wind model is used as the transverse wind velocity, which makes the simulation simple. The time-varying signal is generated as functions of the receiver aperture diameter and the rms wind speed. The simulated result of the time-varying signal is presented and compared with the gamma-gamma distribution based on the scintillation theory in a moderate-to-strong-turbulence regime.
©2011 Optical Society of America
1. Introduction
The first theoretical study of scintillation for a ground-to-space laser beam transmission was performed by Fried [1]. Scintillation was measured on a vertical path from a ground-based laser transmitter to the GEOS-III satellite orbiting at 1800 to 2000 km above the Earth. The power spectral density functions were also analyzed, and a larger aperture was found to reduce the higher frequency downlink spectra, as reported by Bufton [2]. The temporal-frequency spectrum associated with atmospheric turbulence has been examined in prior studies [3–5]. Greenwood proposed a bandwidth specification for adaptive optics systems [6], referred to as the Greenwood frequency [7]. The peak frequency of the spectrum, spectra with different apertures, and the dependence of spectra on wavelength were examined [8–11]. The bandwidth considerations of tracking through turbulence were discussed by Tyler [12]. The aperture averaging effect was shown to be effective for mitigating the scintillation in the downlink scenario [13,14]. Churnside evaluated the aperture averaging effects under conditions of weak and strong turbulence [15]. Andrews et al. predicted the frequency shift due to aperture averaging as a function of the characteristic frequency, which they referred to as the Fresnel frequency, defined by the Fresnel scale and mean wind speed [16]. Thus far, however, the frequency characteristics that result from aperture averaging have not been analyzed using actual measurement data of low Earth orbit (LEO)-to-ground laser links.
The frequency spectra of irradiance fluctuations have higher frequency components, particularly in the case of LEO-to-ground laser links. This is because LEO satellites move at high speed (several km/s) and the frequency components of the irradiance fluctuations can reach several kHz as the optical link traverses the air mass while tracking these satellites. The first experiments on laser communications between an optical ground station and an LEO satellite were recently performed [17]. In this scenario, the frequency response due to the presence of a high transverse wind speed were discussed based on the Hufnagel Valley (HV) model, which was dominated by the aperture averaging effect [18,19].
In this paper, we derive the temporal characteristics that result from turbulence spectra and aperture averaging for downlink optical channels. In Section 2, the temporal frequency characteristics based on the spatial frequency spectra for the downlink are derived. The scintillation theory is given in Section 3 with respect to the scintillation index and the rms wind speed. The numerical results for the temporal frequency spectra and the mean frequency are presented and the simulated time-varying signals and the histograms are provided with the estimated scintillation indices in Section 4.
2. Temporal frequency characteristics of laser beam propagation through atmospheric turbulence
2.1. Derivation of the spatial spectrum
Consider an optical receiver that is located at an optical ground station and detects the downlink laser beam transmitted from a satellite. Figure 1 shows the configuration of the optical receiver for measuring the fluctuating laser beam. The receiver, with an aperture pattern of a(r), measures the amplitude of the speckle pattern, s(r), resulting from the atmospheric turbulence at point r. The received electrical signal is thus expressed as
Here, the receiver area for a(r) is πD 2/4, where the antenna diameter is represented by D, τr is the optics loss of the receiver, and V represents the transverse wind velocity between the air mass and the optical link. The function is the spatial signal form of the electrical signal, e(t), and is given by the following convolution:
Hence, the spatial power spectrum Ws(κ) of s(r) is related to the spatial power spectrum Wa(κ) of a(r) by
where κ is the spatial frequency vector and Ws*(κ) is the conjugate of Ws(κ). The inverse Fourier transform of Eq. (3) becomesThe temporal frequency spectrum is given by
Here, substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (5), we have
Let κ and ϕ be the polar components of the two-dimensional vector κ = (κcosθ, κsinθ). We then obtain
If the direction of the transverse wind velocity is represented by one axis, Eq. (6) can be written as
where V is the transverse wind speed. Here, the integration of the impulse function isTherefore,
2.2. Derivation of the temporal frequency spectrum
The power spectral component can be viewed as the probability of each frequency; we therefore consider the expected value of the frequency. When the spectrum Ws2(κ) can be described by the von Kármán spectrum,
where and . l 0 is an inner scale and L 0 is an outer scale. The window function a(r) is circular with a diameter D, as below:The spatial spectrum of Wa(κ) is given by
where κ is the scalar spatial frequency. Using Eqs. (11) and (13), the temporal power spectrum is given byThe normalized frequency components can be viewed as the probability of occurrence at each frequency. The normalized power spectrum corresponding to the probability function is formulated as follows
The expected value of the frequency corresponding to the mean frequency can be obtained by multiplying the frequency by the weighting spectra:
If we modulate the amplitude and phase randomly in each complex frequency component of We(f), the power spectral density (PSD) for generating the random time-varying signals can be calculated from
where θrand(f) is the random phase perturbation from 0 to 2π. Therefore, the time-varying electrical signals can be given by the inverse Fourier transform by3. Scintillation theory
3.1. Gamma-gamma distribution
The probability density function (PDF) of the received signal for the moderate-to-strong-turbulence regime can be well explained by the gamma-gamma distribution, which was also in good agreement with the simulation data [20–24]. The gamma-gamma distribution is given by [24]
where I is the intensity, Γ() is the gamma function and Ka(b) is the modified Bessel function of the second kind. The parameters of the gamma-gamma distribution with the large-scale and small-scale scintillation are given bywhere σx 2 and σy 2 are the normalized variances for the large-scale and small-scale scintillation, respectively. The scintillation index is related to these parameters by3.2. Rms wind speed in the HV model
The structural parameter of the HV model is given by [24] and the Cn 2 model modified for the optical ground station at National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT) is given by [25]
where M is the new parameter added for the NICT optical ground station and h is the altitude of the optical ground station. When Cn 2 becomes larger than 10−14, the scintillation can be considered to be in the moderate-to-strong-turbulence regime. The rms wind speed in meters per second, v, is determined fromwhere VB(h) is described by the Bufton wind model, which is obtained asHere, vg is the ground wind speed, and ωg is the slew rate associated with satellite motion relative to an observer on the ground. As shown in Fig. 2 , the rms wind speed can exceed 200 m/s when the antenna slew rate is greater than 0.8°/s. The transverse wind velocity V in Section 2 is regarded as the rms wind speed v in this paper. Equation (23) is the conventional equation; therefore, it is useful to create linkages between the rms wind speed and the antenna slew rate for LEO satellites. As the outer scale is very sensitive for the peak frequency components in the power spectra, the outer scale can be properly fitted with the measured power spectra at the desired rms wind speed.
4. Numerical results
4.1. Temporal frequency spectrum
Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show the temporal power spectra fWe 2(f) calculated for aperture diameters of 5 cm and 32 cm, and an rms wind speed of 76 m/s. The peak frequency for the 5-cm diameter is higher than that for the 32-cm diameter. The temporal power spectra are calculated based on Eq. (15). The power spectra at different rms wind speeds of 76 m/s and 117 m/s are plotted in Fig. 3(b). The peak frequency component for v = 117 m/s becomes higher than that for v = 76 m/s.
4.2. Mean frequency
The mean frequencies can be estimated using Eq. (26). The power spectra fWe 2(f) are integrated and the expected values of the frequencies are plotted in Fig. 4 . The two curves were calculated with aperture diameters of 5 cm and 32 cm, indicated as “We(f) model” in Fig. 4. The measurement results obtained in space-to-ground laser communications experiments [19] are also plotted in the figure and these values were measured by a pin-photo diode (PD), an avalanche photo diode (APD), and a quadrant detector (QD) with aperture diameters of 5 cm, 31.8 cm and 31.8 cm, respectively.
4.3. Scintillation index
The normalized variance, which is called the scintillation index, can be calculated using the Cn 2 model in Ref [25]. The parameters used for the simulation are shown in Table 1 . From Eq. (22), Cn 2 at an altitute of 122 m for the NICT optical ground station in Koganei can be estimated to be 2.68 x 10−14 m-2/3. The atmospheric coherence lengths, known as Fried’s parameter, are estimated to be 4.2 cm and 4.7 cm at elevation angles of 23.5° and 35.2°, which correspond to seeing angles of 5.3 arcsec and 4.7 arcsec, respectively. The scintillation indices can be estimated to be 0.093 and 0.083 for the aperutre diameter of 32 cm at elevation angles of 23.5° and 35.2° based on the parameters in Table 1. The scintillation indices are 0.61 and 0.71 for the aperture diameter of 5 cm.
4.4. Generation of random time-varying signals
Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the random time-varying signals generated from the proposed model of Eq. (18) with aperture diameters of 5 cm and 32 cm, and rms wind speed of v = 76 m/s. At the smaller apertures, the time-varying signals have higher frequency fluctuations. At higher rms wind speeds, the random time-varying signals have higher frequency fluctuations, as shown in Figs. 5(c) and 5(d). The normalized intensities are rescaled by the scintillation indices estimated in Subsection 4.3.
In this simulation, two Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs) and some integral calculations are required for generating the time-varying signals. The calculation is not especially complex, and so it is possible to generate the random time-varying signals in real time. Actual implementation will be the next step for this study. The proposed simulation model will assist in examining the error correcting codes in the laboratory level test and can be used to test equipment for free-space laser propagation through atmospheric turbulence.
4.5. Histogram of the time-varying signals
Figure 6 shows histograms of the random time-varying signals with different wind speeds, which are the same data as in Figs. 5(c) and 5(d). The dynamic range of the signal fluctuation is about 20 dB at a probability of 10−2. Comparing Figs. 6(a) and 6(b), if the wind speed changes, the PDF has almost the same profile. The gamma-gamma distrubtion is also plotted in Fig. 6. The simulated data has good agreement with the gamma-gamma distribution; however, there is some difference in the vicinity at lower intensities. From Figs. 6(a) and (b), the simulated results have longer tails. The longer tails will cause deeper fading in the signals, and will contribute to a worst-case senario for evaluation tests using the proposed model. We already examined the comparison between the calculated and measured data in Figs. 9–14 in the reference [25]. The probability density functions for the uplink and downlink measured in the ground-to-satellite laser communication experiments had good agreement with the gamma-gamma distribution.
5. Conclusion
The temporal characteristics resulting from aperture averaging were discussed for downlink optical channels and the simulation model for the fading channel was developed. The temporal power spectral densities were derived and the random time-varying signals were generated as a function of the receiver aperture size and rms wind speed. At smaller apertures and higher rms wind speeds, the random time-varying signals have higher frequency fluctuations. The results proposed here will assist in examining the optimal error correcting codes and the appropriate interleaver given the communication purpose, and also in evaluating equipment using the proposed model for free-space laser propagation through atmospheric turbulence.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and NEC Toshiba Space Systems, Ltd., for conducting the NICT optical ground station to the Optical Inter-orbit Communications Engineering Test Satellite (OICETS) experiments.
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