Abstract
The detection of the precise movement of a vesicle during transport in a live cell provides key information for the intracellular delivery process. Here we report a novel numerical method for analyzing three-dimensional vesicle movement. Since the vesicle moves along a linear cytoskeleton during the active transport, our method first detects the orientation and position of the cytoskeleton as a linear section based on angle correlation and linear regression, after noise reduction. Then, the precise vesicle movement is calculated using vector analysis, in terms of rotation angle and translational displacement. Using this method, various vesicle trajectories obtained via high spatiotemporal resolution microscopy can be understood..
© 2018 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement
1. Introduction
When the extracellular molecules are taken up by a live cell as forming vesicles, they are gradually delivered from the membrane into the cytoplasmic area, following the biochemical pathway. This process is called endocytosis [1]. The vesicle is a basic unit of intracellular transport, and the movement of vesicle is closely related to the understanding of the intracellular transport mechanism [2]. Therefore, for various biomedical applications related to the intracellular transport mechanism, such as drug delivery, many researches have been conducted to elucidate the precise movement of vesicle [3–5].
Earlier approaches revealed that the vesicles are actively transported via the interaction with cytoskeletons, such as microtubule and actin filament, mainly based on the purified system where the vesicle is coupled with a single transporting filament recruited by motor protein [6,7]. Those studies explained that a vesicle shows linear movement while walking along the cytoskeletal filament. Recent researches are more focused on the visualization and analysis of vesicle trajectories in a live cell with improved imaging techniques [8–10], since the vesicles in a live cell inevitably interact with multiple cytoskeletons rather than a single filament.
Since the size of vesicles is smaller than one hundred nanometers in diameter in case of common receptor-mediated endocytosis, the trajectory of vesicle is acquired based on fluorescence imaging microscopy. FIONA, Fluorescent Imaging with One-Nanometer Accuracy, theoretically enabled the localization of a single fluorophore with one nanometer precision in two dimensions [11]. Also, recent advances in imaging technique such as dual focus optics now allow us to estimate three-dimensional trajectory of a vesicle in a live cell with high spatiotemporal resolution in practical imaging condition [12–14]. Figure 1 shows an example of single vesicle trajectory in three dimensions acquired via the dual focus optics.
However, the movement trajectories of vesicle acquired via advanced imaging techniques still apparently consist of complex cluster of position data, in that the data not only include measurement error but also the vesicle actually interact with complicated structure of interwound cytoskeletons while being transported. Therefore, for detecting the detailed feature of the vesicle movement in a complex cytoskeleton network, one of the most important tasks is to establish a criterion which distinguishes the active transport of vesicle from random diffusion. For this purpose, several researches suggested mathematical methods, based on mean squared displacement (MSD) [15], angle correlation [16], and further with Hidden Markov Model (HMM) [17], in order to determine the active transport of a vesicle where it shows linear and persistent movement. Those studies have provided insight into building statistical model for recognizing the active transport, yet they only concern the vesicle movement itself, and thus the information between the vesicle and cytoskeleton is not included.
In this research, we present a novel numerical analysis method for vesicle movement in terms of the interaction between vesicle and cytoskeleton. Our method features intuitiveness and robustness in detecting active transport section from three-dimensional vesicle trajectory by estimating the orientation and position of the cytoskeleton, which is defined as a linear movement section. The process of the presented method is as shown in Fig. 2. First, noise filter is applied in order to remove the noise from the acquired position data. Then, the movement trajectory is divided into active transport section and random diffusion section, based on the linearity and persistency in the traveling direction. Next, the orientation and position of cytoskeleton are estimated by finding the linear axis during the active transport, via linear regression using principal component analysis. Lastly, the data points are projected onto the estimated location of cytoskeleton, which can be exploited to reveal the precise movement of the vesicles on the cytoskeleton. With the simulation, the performance of the proposed analysis method is proved. The proposed numerical analysis method is expected to help understand the complex trajectory data acquired from various microscopy imaging, unveiling the detailed shape of the vesicle movement in a complicated cytoskeleton network.
2. Numerical method for vesicle movement analysis
Vesicles show linear movement when they are transported by a single cytoskeleton filament, due to the linearity of the cytoskeleton structure [18]. Also, because the active transport of vesicle occurs when the vesicle interacts with cytoskeleton, one of the intuitive methods to distinguish the active transport of a vesicle is to extract the linear section from complex movement data points. To do this, we suggest a numerical approach to detect the linear section from the acquired position data distribution.
2.1. Linear section detection
Prior to detecting the linearly distributed data points from complex vesicle movement trajectory, it is required to reduce the noise of the raw position data. For this purpose, Gaussian moving average is applied as a noise filter to each raw x, y, and z coordinates. Applying Gaussian filter is also called as Weierstrass transform in mathematics, which is achieved by transforming input data points via convolution with Gaussian function [19]. The convolution scheme is required in order to prevent the latency involved in the smoothing process. Therefore, the data points in three dimensions are individually filtered by Weierstrass transform function as in Eq. (1).
where i denotes the time index, xi represents the i-th noise-filtered coordinate while indicates the raw coordinate, and G refers to the Gaussian kernel. The operator ⊛ denotes the convolution, and m represents the size of the Gaussian kernel, which is defined as in Eq. (2).By applying Weierstrass transform to three-dimensional data points according to Eq. (1), it is possible to obtain Gaussian weighted moving average of the raw data points set. Now consider the filtered position as a point Pi(xi, yi, zi) and the corresponding vector ri ∈ ℝ3. In order to define a linear section with the filtered data point set P = {P1, P2, ..., PN} and corresponding vector set r = {r1, r2, ..., rN}, the interval where the data points show persistent linearity is required to be distinguished. To do this, we define a linear domain based on the local curvature of the trajectory, which can be investigated from the local angles. As shown in Fig. 3, the local angle θi is defined between the two vectors ri+m − ri and ri−m − ri, the three consecutive data points separated by the size of Gaussian filter m, as a criterion for partial coherence in the direction of travel. The angle θi can be calculated as in Eq. (3), by computing the inner product.
As shown in Fig. 3, if θi = π, the local trajectory is completely linear, while means the perpendicularly changed local trajectory. Therefore, the local movement of a vesicle between Pi−m and Pi+m can be considered as relatively linear and persistent when θi is closed to π, compared to the case where θi is far smaller than π. Here we introduce a threshold angle θc, in order to determine and extract the local linear domains from the entire trajectory data. As shown in Fig. 3, a series of data points forming θi ≥ θc is recognized as a persistent movement section, otherwise the data point set is treated as a random movement section.
In fact, the size parameter m for data separation and the threshold angle θc contain a trade-off between noise removal and excessive smoothing. Therefore, it is required to investigate the range of m and θc before we apply this noise reduction method to actual data. In order to provide practical reason for determining proper values of both parameters m and θc, simulation is conducted as shown in Fig. 4. In the simulation, three different linear segments are prepared in space as shown in Fig. 4(A), mimicking the crossed cytoskeletons located in a cell. Since the size of endocytic vesicle is up to 100 nm in diameter assuming common micropinocytosis [20], vesicle is expected to be detected around the cytoskeleton within the range of its radius. Therefore, the vesicle trajectory along the segments are generated randomly to be located between 0 and 100 nm from the base segment, as shown in Fig. 4(B). In order to determine the appropriate range of the parameter m, the angle θi which is defined as Fig. 3 is calculated with varying m, from 1 to 40 data points. The line colored in orange shown in Fig. 4(C) represents the θi calculated on the ground truth. As shown in Fig. 4(D), the proper value of m can be determined by estimating the ratio of occupation with respect to the area defined by the ground truth. When the threshold angle θc is equal to , the optimal value m is around 16 data points for the simulation.
The range of angle θi to define the persistent movement of a vesicle is suggested as the angle from 0 to in the previous research [16], but the local minimum angles shown in Fig. 4(C) imply that is too small to recognize two different linear sections. Considering the ideal persistent movement forms π while the returning movement forms 0 between adjacent data points, we conservatively suggest as a threshold angle to determine the linear and persistent movement from complex position data distribution.
Note that the nonlinear movement includes random diffusion and the change in traveling direction. Using the above angle criteria, now we can define the linear sections as the interval where the angle θi is persistently larger than , while the random diffusion or the corner of direction change is defined when θi is smaller than . Based on this definition and the m as 16 data points, linear sections in the simulated data point set are detected as shown in Fig. 5(A). The data points colored in pink represent the sections detected as linear and persistent movement while the mint green indicates the groups of data at the corner of the direction change.
2.2. Estimation on the orientation and position of the cytoskeleton
Now it is possible to estimate the orientation and position of cytoskeleton, in the section where vesicle showed linear and persistent movement. For this purpose, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is applied to locate the axis of traveling direction, which can be interpreted as the traces of the interaction between vesicle and cytoskeleton. As a statistical technique in regression analysis, PCA produces the principal axis which minimizes the orthogonal errors from data points [21]. In order to apply PCA method, the data point set {P1, P2, ..., Pn}, which is distinguished as a linear section, is rearranged as a n × 3 matrix Pl. Then, the covariance matrix C for Pl can be calculated as in Eq. (5).
where M represents the zero mean design matrix of Pl [22]. By utilizing the singular value decomposition (SVD) [23], C is decomposed as in Eq. (6). where A comprises the eigenvectors of C and Λ indicates a diagonal matrix of the eigenvalues. When the eigenvector for the largest eigenvalue calculated from Eq. (6) is represented as ê1 = (ex, ey, ez), this vector indicates the travel direction of the data point set Pl, which can be interpreted as the orientation of the cytoskeleton the vesicle interacted with. Since the direction vector ê1 alone cannot determine the position of cytoskeleton, we fix this vector at the center position Qc(xc, yc, zc), the mean coordinates of Pl. Therefore, the orientation and position of cytoskeleton can be represented by the addition of two points, (xc, yc, zc) + (ex, ey, ez). Let the end point of this vector be Q′c, as shown in Fig. 5(B). Therefore, the orientation of cytoskeleton can be defined as .Additionally, the overall shape of the cytoskeleton can be estimated by perpendicularly projecting the respective initial and final data points in the linear section, P1 and Pn, onto the evaluated position vector of the cytoskeleton. Since the projection of a point onto a position vector can be computed by the inner product scheme of two vectors, we define the position vector of the estimated cytoskeleton as , for simplicity. Then, the coordinates of Qi, the perpendicularly projected point from Pi(xi, yi, zi) ∈ Pl onto , can be computed as in Eq. (7).
Since the point Qi can be expressed as Qi = κ(ex, ey, ez) + (xc, yc, zc) using the size factor κ, the Eq. (7) can be numerically calculated as Eq. (8).
which produces the value of κ simply as shown in Eq. (9).Accordingly, as shown in Fig. 5(B), starting point Q1 and ending point Qn, respectively projected from P1(x1, y1, z1) and Pn(xn, yn, zn) to the cytoskeleton, can be numerically evaluated as in Eq. (10).
Therefore, the line is the estimated cytoskeleton in terms of the 3D orientation and position for the linear section Pl.
In order to evaluate the robustness of this estimation model, especially against the noise level and the diameter of vesicle, the discrepancy between the estimated cytoskeleton position and the ground truth was investigated. As shown in Fig. 5(C), for the estimated cytoskeleton , the corresponding ground truth is , and the angle between and is defined as δ which represents the estimation error. The distribution of δ according to the change in noise level and vesicle diameter are shown in Fig. 5(D). Noise level includes the system noise which influences the detection stability, and is defined as the standard deviation of the measurement value. From one hundred independent simulations with changing noise level, the median of δ was smaller than 1° up to 10 nm of noise level. Also, the distribution of δ increased according to the size of the vesicle, but the median value of δ was smaller than 1° when the diameter of vesicle is around 100 nm or smaller. Since the recent advances in imaging system such as super-resolution microscopy enabled high spatial resolution imaging and the diameter of vesicle is around 100 nm assuming common endosomes except for phagosomes [24], it is expected that the proposed model can be applied to various vesicle movement trajectory analysis acquired via high spatial resolution microscopy imaging.
Based on the estimated orientation and position of cytoskeleton, the angles between crossing cytoskeletons in an interwound structure also can be calculated. Assuming that a vesicle moves from one cytoskeleton to another as shown in Fig. 5(C), and the estimated start and end coordinates are Q1 and Qn for the former and Q′1 and Q′n for the latter, the angle ϕ between two cytoskeletons can be computed by using outer and inner product of and , as in Eq. (11).
Note that the angle ϕ is calculated by four-quadrant inverse tangent function, also known as atan2, in order to prevent any confusion in determining the rotation direction [25,26].
2.3. Rotational and translational movement analysis of vesicle on the cytoskeleton
In order to analyze the movement of vesicle in terms of the interaction with cytoskeleton, the data points in the linear section are projected to corresponding estimated location of cytoskeleton, as shown in Fig. 6. The projection is conducted in the same manner described in Eq. (7). Figure 6(A) shows the projected points Qi and Qi+1 from Pi and Pi+1, respectively. The instant movement of vesicle around the estimated cytoskeleton at time ti can be explained based on the relation between two right-handed coordinate systems, Σi and Σi+1, which are defined as shown in Fig. 6(A). Therefore, the local movement from Pi to Pi+1 can be described by the coordinate system transformation from Σi to Σi+1, with rotation matrix Ri and translation vector ti, as shown in Eq. (12).
where Ri and ti are defined as in Eq. (13).Note that Ri concerns the vesicle rotation around the axis of cytoskeleton as shown in Fig. 6(B), while ti indicates the translational displacement along the cytoskeleton orientation. The angle ρi denotes the rotation angle of Σi+1 with respect to Σi around ẑ axis, and ψi measures the angle between Σ1 and Σi in a cumulative manner, as described in Fig. 6(B). The cumulative angle ψi is a useful term when vesicle shows continuous rotation around cytoskeleton, and it can be calculated as in Eq. (14).
Preparing these angle criteria is important in that vesicles are known to move spirally along cytoskeletons from single-molecule experiments, such as microtubule and actin filament [27,28]. Therefore, it is expected that we can detect any angular motion of the target vesicle on cytoskeleton, using these definitions for ρi and ψi. Also, since Qi can be interpreted as the actual position of a vesicle while interacting the cytoskeleton, instant translational velocity vi along the axis of cytoskeleton between the time ti and ti+1 can be calculated as in Eq. (15).
Note that vi is also an essential factor for identifying the type of motor protein involved in the interaction between vesicle and cytoskeleton.
3. Application to actual vesicle movement data
The proposed numerical analysis method described is now applied to the actual vesicle movement data. As an example case, the movement of an endocytic vesicle in a live cancer cell was tracked using three-dimensional imaging microscopy, and its movement trajectory was analyzed following the processes presented above.
3.1. Three-dimensional position data acquisition
The cell line exploited in the experiment is KPL-4 human breast cancer cell [29], which was kindly provided by Dr. Kurebayashi (Kawasaki Medical school, Kurashiki, Japan). The endocytic vesicles were labeled by adding 4 nM of carboxylate-functionalized quantum dots (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) to the cells. Quantum dot is a semiconductor nanocrystal, which is widely applied in biological imaging as a fluorescent probe [30]. Since the cell engulfs surrounding molecules including quantum dots, it is possible to detect the position of vesicles by tracking the light emitted from the quantum dot [31,32]. The movement of vesicle in a live cell was imaged through fluorescent microscopy and reconstructed in three dimensions based on the principle of dual focus imaging optics [13]. The x, y coordinates of a vesicle were detected as a position of the Gaussian peak of point source intensity, and the z coordinates were evaluated by comparing the intensities of the point source on dual image planes. In the live-cell imaging, the initial position of the specimen was kept stable by using the axial position locking system [33]. The detection precision in the imaging system is within 5 nm in three dimensions, as shown in Fig. 7(A). Total imaging time was 10 s, and the images were taken at 100 Hz frame rate, which produced one thousand position data points. Note that fluorescent microscopy is not mandatory for applying the proposed analysis method, but the vesicle position data acquired via various imaging system can be exploited as long as the detection noise level and the size of vesicle are within the range of 10 nm and 100 nm, respectively, as explained in Fig. 5(D).
3.2. Vesicle movement analysis
The result of the presented method applied to a representative trajectory of vesicle movement acquired in a live cell is shown in Fig. 7(B). The red dots represent the location of vesicle labeled by quantum dot, and the shape of the target cell is colored in gray scale, which was taken by phase-contrast microscopy. In order to compare the shape of interaction in a cytoskeleton network, we chose two vesicles in different location in a cell : one vesicle marked as Pc near the cell edge where cytoskeletons form a dense network structure, and the other vesicle Pd found at perinuclear area where a few microtubules run due to the existence of a nucleus. The reconstructed trajectory of Pc and Pd in three dimensions are shown in Fig. 7(C) and Fig. 7(D), respectively. When our linear section finding algorithm is applied to the acquired trajectories, three individual linear sections were recognized for the vesicle Pc and four linear sections were detected for Pd. The linear sections in Pc were labeled as c1, c2, and c3, and the linear sections in Pd were marked as d1, d2, d3, and d4. Also, the orientation and position of cytoskeleton for each linear section was evaluated as a red segment for both trajectories, as respectively shown in Fig. 7(C) and Fig. 7(D).
When the angles between the estimated cytoskeletons, which is notated as ϕ in Fig. 5, were computed via Eq. (11), the estimated cytoskeletons in Pc formed 158° and 19°, while the angles between the estimated cytoskeletons in Pd were 156°, 159°, and 98°. Although we only investigated two example cases, very acute angle (19°) was detected in the case of Pc that was tracked near the cell edge, which implies that the vesicle can transfer between the cytoskeletons crossed with quite acute angles in a complex network structure. It is expected that identification of the cytoskeleton in this type of transfer and the precise relation between the angle ϕ and the intracellular location of the vesicle can be further studied in the future researches.
Also, for each detected linear section, the angular motion of the vesicle on the estimated cytoskeleton was calculated in terms of cumulative angle ψi according to Eq. (14). Figure 7(E) represents the change of cumulative angle ψi and the corresponding translational distance of the vesicle in the linear section c1, c2, and c3, for the case of Pc. Note that the ψi at the initial position of the vesicle on each linear section was set at 0°, and the translational distance of the vesicle on the estimated cytoskeleton was calculated by adding up the in Eq. (13). In the same manner, the change of cumulative angle ψi and the translational distance for d1, d2, d3, and d4 in the trajectory Pd were computed as shown in Fig. 7(F).
As a result, as shown in Fig. 7(E) and Fig. 7(F), the cumulative angle ψi in the linear sections seemed to be either increasing or decreasing for a certain extent but not until the end of linear section, in both cases Pc and Pd alike. Since the changes in cumulative angle indicates a rotational movement around the cytoskeleton, the detected motion can be interpreted as a composition of both clock-wise and anti clock-wise rotation. This non-uniformity in the direction of rotation implies the possibility that the interaction between vesicle and cytoskeleton in a live cell might not be directly governed by the structure of the cytoskeleton, which induces a regular helical motion around the cytoskeleton as observed in the case of in vitro experiment [27,28]. In addition, while the vesicles were fluctuating in terms of angular motion around the axis of estimated cytoskeleton, they walked along the cytoskeleton showing linearly increasing translational distance as shown in Fig. 7(E) and Fig. 7(F). The mean speeds in the linear sections were distributed from 100 nm/s to 360 nm/s for the case of Pc, while the linear sections in Pd showed values between 250 nm/s and 380 nm/s. Particularly, the translational speed between the adjacent linear sections of Pc changed considerably, in contrast to the small variance of the mean speeds in the case of Pd. Since the speed of vesicle on the cytoskeleton is determined by the interaction between the vesicle and cytoskeleton, which is mediated by motor proteins, the large variance in mean speed found in Pc can imply the difference in the type of involved motor proteins or cytoskeletons. Although there can exist any external influences to the vesicle movement from the cytoskeletons, such as the movement of cytoskeleton itself [34], the movement in the linear section occurs in a sub-second scale, thus the speed here can be interpreted independently from such influences.
Therefore, using our numerical analysis method, complicated movement of vesicle in a cytoskeleton network can be investigated and understood in quantitative terms. If substantial data are collected, it is expected that the unsolved questions regarding the vesicle delivery in a cell, such as the identification of the types of cytoskeleton involved in the vesicle transfer and the relation between the transfer angle and the frequency of transfer, can be answered with a reliable evidence.
4. Conclusion
In this research, we proposed a novel numerical analysis method for detecting precise movement of vesicle in a complex trajectory, focusing on the interaction between the vesicle and cytoskeleton. Since the vesicles are actively transported along cytoskeleton as showing linear movement, our computational method started with locating the linear section in three-dimensional trajectory and estimated the orientation and position of cytoskeleton based on PCA and vector analysis. In the simulation, the proposed method showed high accuracy in detecting the linear sections, proving the effectiveness of the algorithm. Also, we suggested criteria to show the detailed feature of vesicle movement on cytoskeleton, by projecting the position of the vesicle in the linear section onto the estimated cytoskeleton using vector computation. Particularly, we showed that rotational and translational movement of the vesicle on the axis of the cytoskeleton can be explained by the transformation of coordinate system. When the presented method was applied to the actual vesicle trajectory acquired from a live cell, several linear sections were recognized from apparently complex trajectory data. The movement of vesicle on the estimated cytoskeleton was also analyzed in terms of the angular and translational movement. Since the presented numerical analysis method features intuitiveness and simplicity, it is expected to be practically applied to various trajectory data analyses which suffer from noise and complexity, and to open a door for understanding the precise movement of vesicle in terms of interaction with cytoskeleton.
Funding
Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A and B) (H. H. 23247022 and 16H04773) and Challenging Exploratory Research (H. H. 17K19343) from Japan MEXT.
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